Conservation Ecology of Bornean Orangutans in the Greater Batang Ai- Lanjak-Entimau Landscape, Sarawak, Malaysia Joshua Juan Anak George Pandong Student ID: a1683422 ORCID ID: 0000-0001-7856-7777 A thesis submitted to attain the degree of MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY (SCIENCES) Department of Ecology and Environmental Science School of Biological Sciences Faculty of Sciences THE UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE SOUTH AUSTRALIA February 2019 in memory of Tok Nan Conservation ecology of Bornean orangutans in Sarawak Abstract The Bornean Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus) is one of the three great ape species in Asia. P. pygmaeus is further divided into three subspecies based on their genetic divergence. These subspecies are also geographically apart from each other; with the Malaysian state of Sarawak having the least number of wild orangutans. In 2016, the threat level for the species was upgraded to ‘Critically Endangered’ under the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. The alarming upgrade was due to increased threats to the survival of the species in Borneo, mainly due to habitat degradation and forest loss as well as hunting. The actual orangutan numbers in the wild were still unclear despite the upgrade due to wide variance generated from various statistical methods or survey protocols used to estimate them. In Sarawak, the conservation efforts have been ongoing with the focus on preventing further population decline, habitat degradation and forest loss. The first step in this effort was to acquire baseline data on population estimates and distribution at the core habitats of Batang Ai-Lanjak-Entimau (BALE) where most of the viable orangutan populations are found in the State. The data were needed for drafting a policy on a long-term strategic action plan for orangutans at the greater BALE Landscape. If the policy is approved, collaboration is anticipated between conservation partners and government agencies to implement the recommendations. These cover a wide range of disciplines including science, technology, policy and socio-economy. The purpose of this thesis is then to provide a comprehensive and updated report on orangutan conservation in Sarawak for the intended joint collaborators. This thesis expounds on the current threats and conservation strategies in Sarawak, recent population and distribution studies at the Batang Ai-Lanjak-Entimau (BALE) Landscape, and recommendations for future studies at other focal sites with remnant orangutan population outside the core habitats of BALE. One of the major findings include a combined estimate of 355 orangutans with the 95% highest density interval (HDI) of 135 to 602 individuals at the project sites. The outcomes of this project show that the survey designs using Bayesian analyses were a novel approach for site-specific studies, and the results complemented the growing scientific repository on orangutan population studies in Borneo. I conducted this project in collaboration with the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) Malaysia, the organization that sourced the unpublished data used for the analysis of this project. WCS has conducted orangutan nest count surveys at the BALE Landscape since 1991. For the population study, I used new orangutan nest data recorded during the surveys conducted between 2011 and 2015. Subsequently, I combined this data with surveys conducted between 2003 and 2007 as an academic exercise to map proxy orangutan distribution. The survey designs for both the population and distribution studies as shown in the Supplementary Materials were developed by Mike Meredith, the main statistician of this project. I ran the data analysis and compiled the R graphic outputs for the thesis chapters. This thesis should be of interest to policy makers in the Forest Department, Sarawak Forestry Corporation, private organizations and research institutions, as well as local and international collaborators for the implementation of the policy on zero-loss of orangutans and their habitats. It should also be of interest to scholars of great ape ecology and conservation, as well as of land use planning and protected area management. ii Thesis Declaration I certify that this work contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in my name, in any university or other tertiary institution and, to the best of my knowledge and belief, contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference has been made in the text. In addition, I certify that no part of this work will, in the future, be used in a submission in my name, for any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution without the prior approval of the University of Adelaide and where applicable, any partner institution responsible for the joint-award of this degree. I acknowledge that copyright of published works contained within this thesis resides with the copyright holder(s) of those works. I also give permission for the digital version of my thesis to be made available on the web, via the University’s digital research repository, the Library Search and also through web search engines, unless permission has been granted by the University to restrict access for a period of time. …… … Joshua Juan Anak George Pandong 19 February 2019 iii Conservation ecology of Bornean orangutans in Sarawak Acknowledgements My journey as an MPhil student has been one of the most amazing and memorable experiences of my life so far. I owe a lifelong debt of gratitude to a group of remarkable people for being with me throughout this journey. Firstly, my highest gratitude to both my supervisors for their guidance and encouragement throughout my thesis writing. To my principal supervisor, Prof. Lian Pin Koh for being the most dedicated, understanding and supportive supervisor. Thank you for being so patient with me. I am forever grateful for your wise counsel and appreciation throughout the course of this MPhil. To my external supervisor, Dr Melvin Gumal for your unwavering support and encouragement, without whom my career in conservation would not have been possible. Thank you for the faith you have in me on my MPhil journey and career path. You went all out to help me every time and for that I am eternally grateful. Next, I wish to deeply thank my pillars of strength, the people who stood with me during my low and high points. To my parents, George and Mary for your selfless love, care, faith and sacrifice that have shaped my life. Thank you for your willingness to support my decision and showing faith in me. I also sincerely thank my siblings, Karen and Phoster for their love, support and valuable prayers. To my honorary grandparents in Adelaide, Peter and Judy Schneider, your generosity, unconditional love and care as you welcome me into your home still feels like a dream. The story of your kindness will be told for a long time to come. My MPhil journey would not have been possible without the financial support from the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) Graduate Scholarship Program and the Christensen Conservation Leaders Scholarship. I owe a debt of gratitude to Kate Mastro for all the assistance and encouragement I received from the start of my scholarship application, enrolment, study, and right up to completing my thesis write-up. Also, I could not have completed my MPhil without the timely moral support and financial gifts from Dianne Shearer, Graeme and Pat Buntrock, Moses and Arlena Lee, Peter Sim and Dorothy Evans, Roland Tan and Freda Kedung, Hua Cheong Ting and Siew Ming Ho, Vincent and Jenah Gadalon, the Gumal family, and the Schneider family. The Adelaide chapter of my MPhil was filled with fond memories made with incredible people. The Richmond Baptist Church family warmly welcomed me into their lives and homes: Elliot and Sarah Keane, Mick and Camila Barrett, Lois and the Potts family, Pat and the Cuk family, Stuart and Ros Devenish, Hyunkeun Jin and Eunhee Kang, Mark and René Truyens, Lawson and Rella Hannaford, Katie and Chris Jones, Peter and Remy Nohlmans, Haydn Phillips, Karl Assaf, Chris Jarman, Lisa McNally, Anna, Helen Li, Trevor Wilde, the Schneider family, the Lee family, and so many others. I thank Joon Chong and May Kuan for introducing me to the Overseas Christian Fellowship Adelaide family. My Northlife family especially Danwin Chan and Sanjay Chelliah provided fraternal support on many occasions. My Adelaidean gratitude is not complete without thanking my lab mates, the Applied Ecology and Conservation family for an awesome and unforgettable time together in Adelaide and Kuching. Your WebJet eGift Card really made my day! Thank you: Molly Ellis Hennekam, Jarrod Hodgson, Sreekar Rachakonda, Matthew Jared Bowie, Tasya Vadya Sarira, Ramesh Raja Segaran, Alan Stenhouse, Kylie Piper, Po-yun Wong, and Sabine Buchheim. I have also benefited much from discussions over tea with mates on the Oliphant 3. Thank you: iv Bertram Ostendorf, Megan Lewis, Bill Breed, Adam Dale Kilpatrick, Ingrid Ahmer, Ken Clarke, Virginia Simpson, Wallace Boone Law, and many others. I wish to convey my sincere thanks to all who contributed significantly to the studies presented in this MPhil thesis. I acknowledge and thank Mike Meredith, the statistician who developed the study designs in Chapters 3 and 4. I am grateful to my co-authors and former team mates, Lukmann Alen and Ailyn Sidu for their hard work and heart work collecting data for many years. I appreciate the reviews, inputs and edits from my additional authors, Sylvia Ng, Zolkipli Mohamad Aton and Mohd. Shahbudin Sabki. I have benefited greatly from the comments and suggestions from my two MPhil examiners: Serge Wich and Marc Ancrenaz. I acknowledge the support of various departments and agencies for providing research permits, access to maps, use of labs and facilities, as well as additional manpower and logistics. They include: Sarawak State Government, Forest Department Sarawak, Sarawak Forestry Corporation, Department of Survey and Mapping Malaysia, Sarawak Biodiversity Centre, and the District Offices and District Police Offices of Lubok Antu, Kanowit and Song.