VULNERABILITY OF LIVESTOCK FARMERS IN SOUTHERN KALAHARI; THE CASE OF MIER IN RIETFONTEIN, SOUTH AFRICA A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Master of Science degree in International Environment Studies By Timothy Zviripi Munjoma March 2013 Department of International Environment and Development Studies (Noragric) Norwegian University of Life Sciences (UMB) i The Department of International Environment and Development Studies, Noragric, is the international gateway for the Norwegian University of Life Sciences (UMB), which consists of eight departments, associated research institutions and the Norwegian College of Veterinary Medicine in Oslo. Established in 1986, Noragric’s contribution to international development lies in the interface between research, education (Bachelor, Masters and PhD programmes) and assignments. The Noragric Masters theses are the final theses submitted in order to fulfill the requirements under the Noragric Masters programme- ‘International Environment Studies’, ‘Development Studies’ and other Master programmes. The findings in this thesis do not necessarily reflect the views of Noragric. Extracts from this publication may only be reproduced after prior consultation with the author and on condition that the source is indicated. For rights of reproduction or translation contact Noragric. Extracts from © Munjoma Timothy, March 2013 [email protected] All picture credits: Gladman Thondhlana, except where stated Noragric Department of International Environment and Development Studies P. O. Box 5003 N-1432 Ås Norway Tel.: +47 64 96 52 00 Fax: +47 64 96 52 01 Internet: http://www.umb.no/noragric ii DECLARATION I, Timothy Zviripi Munjoma, declare that this thesis is a result of my research investigations and findings. Sources of information other than my own have been acknowledged and a reference list has been appended. This work has not been previously submitted to any other university for award of any type of academic degree. Signature: ……………………………….. Timothy Zviripi Munjoma Date: ………………………………………… iii DEDICATION I dedicate this thesis to my son Timothy Munjoma (Jnr), my mother Elizabeth Munjoma and my late father Benjamin Tendai Zviripi Munjoma. You are the anchor of my life and my love for you will never die. I love you. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost I would like to thank God for making it possible for me to complete this journey. Without Him, I would not have finished this programme. Secondly, I would like to offer my deep gratitude to my supervisor, Ian Bryceson, for his unwavering support throughout the whole process. He taught me many things that I will cherish for the rest of my life, not only academic life but life in general. Once more, thank you. Gladman Thondhlana, this research project is what it is today because of your enormous contributions right from the start. I thank you with all my heart and may God richly bless you and your family. I would also like to acknowledge many individuals; Special thanks goes to Rungano Muzondo for taking some of her precious holiday time to proof read my draft. Your input was greatly appreciated. Ritah Katusiime and your husband Svein B. Sandvik, I want to thank them for the help they rendered me during the writing process. Victor Chimhutu, you showed me what friendship is all about by giving me insights on how to present facts, thank you my friend. Helen Susanne Bevan, you taught me some writing tricks that helped me a lot during my writing. Rumbidzayi Mapfumo, you sacrificed your working time to proof read my draft; I want to acknowledge my appreciation for your contributions. Tinashe Tolerants Munjoma and Keith Munjoma (Kandahar) thank you my brothers for your insights. I would also like to acknowledge, Sunniva Lund, Saroj koirala, Md Lipu, Peter Selby, Ocean Marambanyika, my brother Tendai Talkmore Munjoma, Courage Matiashe, Portia Mazaiwana, Wesley Chibaya and Marshall Munjoma for inspiring me. Finally, I want to thank Patience Linda Madoma for her unwavering support during my entire academic career. Thank you so much for your insights and motivations. v ABSTRACT Vulnerability is now highlighted globally. Poverty has been identified as a key contributor to vulnerability but asset building increases resilience and adaptive capacity. This study examines the root causes of vulnerability and adaptive capacity of Mier pastoralists by utilizing the ‘sustainable livelihood framework’ and ‘pressure and release’ model. The Mier community fled British rule in 1865 and migrated from Cape Town to Northern Cape Province in Rietfontein, south of Kalahari Desert. A mixed methods approach was adopted by utilizing survey, interview and observation to assess the social system. Household heads were investigated to understand the distribution and access to resources that contributed to livelihood. This study revealed that vulnerability of the Mier pastoralist was a result of political and economic factors that reinforced inequalities. Poor households were more vulnerable, especially women-headed households. The main cause of vulnerability was unequal distribution of resources. Despite the effect of climate change and variability in this community, vulnerability was a human-induced phenomenon. Key terms: vulnerability, adaptive capacity, livelihood, resilience, household vi Table of Contents INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY ...................................................... 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 1 A pre- and post-colonial context of South Africa and the study area ......................................... 4 A brief history of South Africa ............................................................................................... 4 History of land reform in South Africa ................................................................................... 5 The Mier community .............................................................................................................. 8 Statement of the problem .......................................................................................................... 11 Significance of the study ........................................................................................................... 12 Objectives of the study.............................................................................................................. 12 Thesis outline ............................................................................................................................ 13 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND METHODS ................................................................... 14 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 14 Vulnerability ......................................................................................................................... 14 Adaptive capacity.................................................................................................................. 15 Resilience .............................................................................................................................. 16 The Sustainable Livelihood Framework (SLF) .................................................................... 17 The Pressure and Release model ........................................................................................... 19 METHODS ............................................................................................................................... 21 Study setting.......................................................................................................................... 21 Description of Study Area .................................................................................................... 21 Mixed methods research ....................................................................................................... 22 Unit of investigation ............................................................................................................. 24 Sampling ............................................................................................................................... 24 Data collection ...................................................................................................................... 25 vii Limitations ............................................................................................................................ 27 Ethical considerations ........................................................................................................... 27 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................. 29 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 29 Towards land reform in post-apartheid South Africa ............................................................... 29 Beyond land reform: the role of global economic forces ......................................................... 31 Empirical studies on livelihoods, climate change and vulnerability in South Africa ............... 32 RESULTS ..................................................................................................................................... 35 Socio-demographic characteristics ..........................................................................................