Running Head: IMAGINING FEAR 1 Imagining Fear: Exploring the Psychological Impact of a Culture of Violence on Women By Sarah Frances Gordon Supervised by: Associate Professor Floretta Boonzaier Thesis Presented for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in the Department of Psychology, in the Faculty off Humanities,Cape Town UNIVERSITYty o OF CAPE TOWN February 2015 Universi The copyright of this thesis vests in the author. No quotation from it or information derived from it is to be published without full acknowledgement of the source. The thesis is to be used for private study or non- commercial research purposes only. Published by the University of Cape Town (UCT) in terms of the non-exclusive license granted to UCT by the author. University of Cape Town Running Head: IMAGINING FEAR 2 Declaration I declare that this dissertation is my own unaided work. All citations, references and borrowed ideas have been duly acknowledged. It is being submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Humanities, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa. None of the present work has been submitted previously for any degree or examination in any other University 31 May 2015 Signature removed Sarah Frances Gordon (Ms.) Date Running Head: IMAGINING FEAR 3 Acknowledgements I would like to express my gratitude to the following people and organisations that have helped contribute to the completion of my doctoral thesis. My PhD supervisor, Associate Professor Floretta Boonzaier, for her guidance and supervision throughout the last four years. My various funders, the National Research Foundation (NRF), the Margaret McNamara Memorial Fund (MMF) and the University of Cape Town (UCT) for their financial assistance throughout this process. Without their financial support this PhD would not be possible. I would also like to thank the staff at the postgraduate funding office for always being so helpful. My colleagues and friends that have helped and supported me on my journey. Special mention to Monique James, Brittany Everitt-Penhale and Dr. Anthony Collins. My family for always loving me unconditionally and encouraging me to pursue postgraduate education. Finally, the women that participated in my study. Thank you for sharing your stories with me and allowing me to be part of your life. Running Head: IMAGINING FEAR 4 Abstract Post-apartheid South Africa’s current climate of patriarchy, social inequality and culture of violence has created a context in which violence against women is both prevalent and tolerated. Despite the extensive literature documenting the social problem of violence against women in South Africa not enough research has been conducted on how this culture of violence affects the identity construction of women. This qualitative, biographical-interpretive study explores how young women’s lives and identities are transformed by living in this culture of violence against women in South Africa, more specifically the psychosocial impact this has on them. It draws on the theory of the psychosocial subject, allowing both a ‘social’ and ‘individual’ understanding of identity and the social problem of violence against women. Free-association, narrative interviews were conducted with 27 female, University of Cape Town (UCT) students, between the ages of 18 and 32. An interpretive analysis drawing on discourse analysis, narrative theory and psychoanalysis was used to analyse the interview texts. Findings revealed the overarching theme of the discourse of subordinate femininity, in which women are constructed as subordinate to men and their behaviour is constantly being regulated and disciplined. The study found that the discourse of subordinate femininity is reproduced through participants’ narratives of family violence, fear and vulnerability and discourses of feminine self-regulation and transgression. The reproduction and resistance of the discourse of subordinate femininity is central to how these women construct their identity. Identifying the discourses of resistance embedded in participants’ talk allows this study to represent both the suffering and resistance of these women, which is not commonly seen in literature surrounding violence against women, offering us a more comprehensive picture of how women construct their identity in a violent and volatile context, Running Head: IMAGINING FEAR 5 such as South Africa. The study also highlighted how the dissemination of discourses of subordinate femininity and feminine transgression contribute to the prevalence of violence against women in society because these discourses position men in a hierarchal corrective relationship to all women, and construct the violence perpetrated against women as a natural response to their transgression. Exploring these narratives and discourses allows us to see how all women, regardless of their experiences of victimisation, are affected by the prevalence of violence against women in society. This study addresses several gaps in the existing literature and is groundbreaking in terms of its unique subject matter, theoretical contributions, methodological approach and social significance to the South African context. It represents an original contribution to the field and is part of an effort to raise consciousness around violence against women and its impact on not only survivors, but all women. Running Head: IMAGINING FEAR 6 Contents Declaration ...................................................................................................................................... 2 Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... 3 Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... 4 Chapter One: Introduction: A Culture of Violence against Women in South Africa .......... 11 1.1. Introduction.............................................................................................................................11 1.2. Background to the Study: Exploring a Culture of Violence against Women in South Africa ....................................................................................................................................................... 12 1.2.1. Exploring Violence, Apartheid and Social Inequality.........................................................13 1.2.2. Violence against Women.....................................................................................................18 1.2.2.1. Types of Violence against Women...................................................................................19 1.2.2.1.1. Sexual Harassment.........................................................................................................19 1.2.2.1.2. Intimate Partner Violence..............................................................................................21 1.2.2.1.3. Rape in South Africa......................................................................................................22 1.2.2.1.3.1. Gang Rape...................................................................................................................26 1.2.2.1.5. Child Sexual Abuse........................................................................................................27 1.2.2.1.6. Homophobic Violence...................................................................................................29 1.2.2.2. Support for a Culture of Violence against Women in South Africa.................................31 1.3. The Research Study: Research Questions and Design...........................................................34 1.4. Significance of the Study........................................................................................................36 1.5. Outline of the Thesis...............................................................................................................37 Chapter Two: A Literature Review of Gender, Fear and Violence against Women............38 2.1. Introduction.............................................................................................................................38 2.2. Women and the Fear of Violence...........................................................................................39 2.2.1. Women's Fear of Violence and Public Spaces.....................................................................39 2.2.2. The Spatial Paradox of Fear: The Stranger Danger Discourse............................................44 2.2.3. Discourses of Responsibility: Constructing Precautionary Strategies.................................47 2.2.4. Summary: Reviewing Research on Women and the Fear of Violence................................53 Running Head: IMAGINING FEAR 7 2.3. Qualitative Research on Women's Experiences of Violence against Women........................54 2.3.1. Violence as Normative and Acceptable...............................................................................55 2.3.2. Violence as a Form of Discipline.........................................................................................59 2.3.3. Minimising and Justifying Violence....................................................................................63 2.3.4. Summary: Reviewing Qualitative Research on Women's Experiences of Violence against Women...........................................................................................................................................66