AN AUGURY OF REVOLUTION: THE IRANIAN STUDENT MOVEMENT AND AMERICAN FOREIGN POLICY, 1960-1972 Matthew K. Shannon A Thesis Submitted to the University of North Carolina at Wilmington in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts Department of History University of North Carolina at Wilmington 2009 Approved by Advisory Committee Lisa Pollard Michael Seidman W. Taylor Fain Chair Accepted by ____________________ Dean, Graduate School TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................................iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................................. v DEDICATION.............................................................................................................................vii ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................................................................................viii CHAPTER I – INTRODUCTION AND HISTORIOGRAPHY................................................... 1 CHAPTER II – THE POLITICIZATION OF IRANIAN STUDENTS ABROAD, 1960-1963 ........................................................................................................................ 28 CHAPTER III – THE JOHNSON ADMINISTRATION AND IRANIAN STUDENT PROTEST, 1964-1968 ........................................................................................................................ 50 CHAPTER IV – THE RADICALIZATION OF IRANIAN STUDENTS IN THE ERA OF THE NIXON DOCTRINE, 1969-1972 .................................................................................... 91 CHAPTER V – CONCLUSION................................................................................................ 118 WORKS CITED ........................................................................................................................ 132 APPENDIX................................................................................................................................ 148 ii ABSTRACT The Iranian student movement was partially a creation of the American government. The organizational structure of the Iranian Students Association was conceived by the American Friends of the Middle East in 1953. However, the United States had lost the battle for the hearts and minds of Iranian students by 1960. Within the first two years of that decade, the Iranian Students Association in the United States was joined by similar groups in Western Europe. The Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon administrations grappled with the question of how to react to these developments. The Kennedy administration questioned the shah’s ability to lead; they also listened to the concerns of Iranian students in the United States. This changed when Lyndon Johnson, determined to reassert American power through use of the military and the forging of questionable alliances, adopted a policy of blind support for the Shah of Iran. What began under the Johnson administration escalated when Richard Nixon was elected president. Throughout these twelve pivotal years, the Iranian student movement became an integral element of the global student unrest of the 1960s. In the early part of the decade, they were, along with members of the Civil Rights Movement, in the vanguard of student protest. Iranian students questioned American imperialism before many, and mounted a vocal campaign against U.S. support for the shah’s regime in the mid-1960s. By then end of the decade, they were joined in the age of global protest by members of SDS, the Black Panthers, and many others, including German leftists. Despite this global call for a retreat from imperialism, Richard Nixon and Henry Kissinger issued the shah a black check to purchase all non-nuclear military hardware from the American arsenal on 30 May 1972. The refusal of the Johnson and Nixon administrations to take the concerns of Iranian students studying within its own borders seriously was a major flaw in American foreign policy. iii While Iranian students gained the attention, and the support, of various American and European youth organizations, along with some more liberal-minded politicians in the United States, they were unable to gain any major influence in policymaking circles in Washington after the Kennedy assassination in November 1963. This resulted in an increased amount of anti- Americanism that became apparent with the outbreak of revolution in Iran in 1978-79. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS There are many people who have played a major role in my academic development. First of all, I would like to thank the history department at UNCW. First as an undergraduate, and then as a graduate student, various members of the faculty have helped me develop my skills as a historian, and cultivate my ideas intellectually. First and foremost, Taylor Fain has been there for me anytime I had a question, or just the desire to talk about American foreign policy. The classes that I had with him as an undergraduate provided me with a solid base of knowledge, and his graduate colloquium on American foreign relations was the most enjoyable class that I have ever been a part of. His tutelage on American foreign relations has helped me better understand subject, and he has encouraged me so that my own ideas could flourish. Michael Seidman has added a much needed dynamic to my training as a historian. He has opened my eyes to a number of historical ideas that I would not have been exposed to otherwise. It was during research for his class on the 1960s that I first became aware of the Iranian student movement, and gained the abilities to contextualize both the Iranian student movement and American foreign policy into the larger themes of the decade. Lisa Pollard has also been a major influence, and she has helped me to understand the complexities of modern Middle Eastern history. Her classes have always been enjoyable, and her engaging personality refreshing. Her input has made me aware of the larger themes in modern Middle Eastern history that would have been missed otherwise. Numerous other professors at UNCW have helped me grow as a historian. Laura Wittern-Keller is a wonderful professor who helped me become a better writer. She also helped me gain a better understanding of modern American history. Larry Usilton, with whom I took many classes with as an undergraduate, helped me develop my research skills. One feels like v they can do anything after researching and writing papers on Medieval history. Susan McCaffray’s insights on historical writing will stay with me for a lifetime. She also helped me gain a better understanding of Soviet history during the Cold War; a vital component to the education of a historian of American foreign relations. Also, after taking Kathleen Berkeley’s class on American historiography, I felt like my understanding of the field of history had been taken to the next level. Her words of encouragement have always been welcomed. Many others at UNCW were invaluable when it came to research for this particular paper. Mark Spaulding took a group of us to National Archives II in College Park, Maryland. This was an unbelievable experience, and it resulted in the acquisition of a plethora of documents and an incredible amount of information that I only wish I fit within the pages of this work. Also, everyone at Randall Library, particularly Sophie Williams and the interlibrary loan staff, were an unbelievable resource. They helped me track down countless numbers of Iranian student documents, along with many books, that made this study possible. I would also like to thank my fellow graduate students; Keith Clark, Matt Jacobs, and Rob Morrison. One could only hope that every graduate student be surrounded by three other students who share similar interests, both inside and outside the classroom. They have been very encouraging of my work, as I have been of theirs. I think that we have provided each other with just enough friendly competition to push one another to excel. They all have very promising futures ahead of them, and I wish them luck with all they do. Quite possibly, our paths may cross in the future; maybe a future collaboration on American foreign policy will have had its origins in the seminar room in Morton Hall. vi DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to my family, and my wife Samantha. Without my mom and dad, there would be no dedication to write. Their patience with a not-always-together college student in his early twenties must have been testing. Their encouragement, facilitation of my work, and interest in my development as both a person and a historian made me always want to do better. Lastly, but certainly not least, I would like to thank my wife Samantha. She has always been the first set of ears to hear my ideas, and the first set of eyes to proofread my papers, both as an undergraduate, and in graduate school. It was also she who convinced me to drop one of my other classes during the first week of my second-to-last semester as an undergraduate, and enroll in a class on the “International Cold War.” She said, “I think that you will really like Dr. Fain and American foreign policy.” It is hard to believe that such a life-altering decision can be made so unexpectedly. Samantha and I have been together for more than seven years, and married for nearly two, and I am grateful that I have had somebody like her in my life. The synergy that we produce transcends anything that I could do alone. vii ABBREVIATIONS CIA