Enlightenment After the Enlightenment: American Transformations of Asian Contemplative Traditions By Ann Louise Gleig A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE Doctor of Philosophy APPROVED, THESIS COMMITTEE c ~2~ Jeffrey J~hair J. Newton Rayzor Professor, Religious Studies 1!T~-------- Associate Professor, Religious Studies lames ~ biOI1: Professor, Anthropology Rice University Houston, TX November 2010 ABSTRACT Enlightenment After the Enlightenment: American Transformations of Asian Contemplative Traditions By Ann Louise Gleig My dissertation traces the contemporary American assimilation of Asian enlightenment traditions and discourses. Through a close reading of three communities, I consider how Asian traditions and ideas have been refracted through the psychological, politiCal, and economic lenses of American culture. One of my chapters, for example, discusses how the American Insight community has attempted to integrate the enlightenment teachings ofTheravada Buddhism with the humanistic, democratic, and pluralistic values of the European Enlightenment. A second chapter traces the American guru Andrew Cohen's transformation from a Neo-Advaita teacher to a leading proponent of "evolutionary enlightenment," a teaching that places traditional Indian understandings of nonduality in an evolutionary context. Cohen's early period shows the further deinstitutionalization of traditional Advaita Vedanta within the radically decontextualized Neo-Advaitin network, and evolutionary enlightenment engages and popularizes another less-known but influential Hindu lineage, namely that of Sri Aurobindo's integral yoga. a A third chapter examines contemporary psychospiritual attempts to incorporate psychoanalytic theory into Asian philosophy in order to reconcile American concerns with individual development with Asian mystical goals of self-transcendence. In conclusion, I argue that the contemporary American assimilation of Asian enlightenment traditions is marked by a number of trends including: (1) a move away from the rhetoric and privileging of experience that scholars such as Robert Sharf have shown to be characteristic of the modem Western understanding of Asian mysticism; and (2) an embrace of world-affirming Tantric forms of Asian spirituality over world-negating renouncer traditions such as Theravada Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta. I also reflect on how the cultural shift from the modem to postmodern has affected East-West integrative spiritualities. Acknowledgements As all those who have written one know, far from being a solo endeavor, a dissertation is the product of many intellectual and existential collaborations without which it would not be possible. Thanks are due first and foremost to the three members of my committee. Jeffrey J. Kripal has been something ofa "super-hero" supervisor and mentor. His work inspired me to return to graduate school and much of this project is a response to his thought. Jeff has been unfailingly supportive of me, provided confidence when I had none, and demonstrated super-human patience, understanding, and care in guiding me through intellectual and existential matters. He carefully read through first drafts of each of these chapters and generously corrected my analytic and stylistic shortcomings. He also wisely counseled me through the inevitable periods of despondency that accompany graduate studies. I am honored to be his student. In a similar vein, William B. Parsons has been the recipient of numerous angst­ ridden emails from me over the last six years and has responded with patience, wisdom and generosity that is much appreciated. It is clear from my work just how much I am analytically indebted to Bill; his seminal scholarship on mysticism and psychoanalysis provides the foundation for my dialogical approach. I must also mention, however, my pedagogical debt. His classes were my favorite at Rice and I attempt to emulate him as a teacher by combining scholastic rigor with a fantastic sense of humor. James Fabion oversaw an intellectually invigorating year of Mellon seminar and got me imagining a parallel life as an anthropologist. The ethnographic component of this project came as a direct result of thinking with Jim. His editorial skills also enabled my first published article, one of the chapters in this dissertation, which gave me some v much-needed confidence to keep going with this project. His intellectual magnitude is well known at Rice, I also want to acknowledge his wit and kindness. Anne Klein has played an essential role in my intellectual and existential development. I am especially grateful for her inspiring example of how to integrate the intellectual and contemplative life and for her generosity and care in providing many opportunities for me from conference presentations to publications. Special mention must also be made of Harvey Aronson who has been a dear intellectual and spiritual mentor to me. His knowledge and understanding of Buddhism and psychoanalysis has greatly influenced me intellectually and his genuine interest in and nurturing of my personal development has meant more than I could express. I would also like to thank the "heart" of the department, Sylvia Louie. She, more than anyone, made the department feel like home to me and I already miss our daily conversations terribly. Rosemary Hennessey deserves thanks for keeping me connected to women, gender and sexuality studies. Her intellectual integrity and commitment to social justice was an inspiration and the graduate program for Women, Sexuality and Gender at Rice was a source of intellectual and political nourishment. Amongst my many wonderful colleagues in the Religious Studies Department at Rice, special thanks go to Nicholas Boeving, (id to my super-ego) Maya Rein, Margarita Guillory, Claire Villarreal and Elizabeth Wallet, whose friendship, quite simply, kept me sane. Also, thanks to the "old school" RELI cohort who got me through the early intimidating years of graduate studies: Torin Alexander, Derek Hicks, Daniel Levine, Nathan Carlin, Heba Khan, Andrea Jain, Chinghui Jianying Ying, and HaeYoung Seong. For their friendship and support: Lianne Wynne, Ceri Mumford, Janet Schwind, Michael VI Lassoff, Gregory Hood, Curt Gambetta, Jennifer Daubenmier, Amanda Yoder, Basak Demirhan, Molly Slattery and Angela Wren Wall. A great debt is due to my big sis, Debbie Maher who has always encouraged and supported my intellectual endeavors. Finally, a very special gratitude is reserved for Olive, Sandee and Jim Loew who became my adopted US family and provided the stability and care that made the completion of this dissertation possible. With the patience and heart of a saint, Olive endured my many rants and kept me well fed throughout: I couldn't have done this without you, Boo. I dedicate this dissertation to my parents, Ann and Michael Gleig, who each in their own way gave me a love of reading and got this whole thing started. My mum has suffered my absence more than anyone but has always encouraged me to follow my own path and her pride in my achievements has motivated me more than she knows. I hope this completed project goes a little way towards making up for my time away from home. In gaining this doctorate, I'm also following in the footsteps of my Dad, who won a scholarship to grammar school a year early and whom everyone has always said I take after. He passed away just a month before this dissertation was completed. I'm so proud to be Dr. Gleig, Dad. Contents Introduction: Enlightenment After the Enlightenment 1-28 One: A Brief History of East-West Spirituality: From Colonialism to the Counter-Culture 29-74 Two: After the Ecstasy, the Laundry? The Domestication of the Dharma in West Coast Vipassana 75-158 Three: Divine Individualism or Mystical Humanism? A.H. Almaas's Diamond Approach 159-197 F our: What is Enlightenment? From Neo-Advaita to Evolutionary Enlightenment in the Life and Works of Andrew Cohen 198-319 Conclusion: Enlightenment Beyond the Enlightenment 320-340 Bibliography 341-358 I Introduction Is there any room for a postreligious spirituality? I feel that what I have learnt is that our spiritual longing needs to be balanced by a healthy discrimination, a critical mind set, the courage to doubt ... Perhaps while wooing the eastern Goddess QfEnlightenment we shouldn't forget the roots of our own western enlightenment. I The Emperor of Enlightenment May Have No Clothes.2 Over the last ten to fifteen years, I began to notice the appearance of an increasing number of testimonies by Western practitioners and teachers within Asian religions and Asian-inspired guru or spiritual communities that questioned some of the fundamental tenets of these traditions particularly regarding the nature of liberation or enlightenment. Although there were variations, some definite shared themes emerged from these narratives: the Asian goal of complete enlightenment was an ideal rather than an actuality; one must give up the immature fantasy of the perfect guru; the spiritual path consisted of both self-development and self-transcendence and the personal individual must be incorporated within impersonal nondual ontologies; enlightenment experiences needed to be integrated into everyday life in the world; and Asian cosmology should be updated in light of Western scientific knowledge. I Andre van der Braak, Enlightenment Blues: My Years With An American Guru (New York: Monkfish Books, 2003). 2 Jeffrey B. Rubin, Psychotherapy and Buddhism: Towards an Integration (New York and London: