1 THE ROLE OF POLITICAL, SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS AND THE MEDIA IN NIGERIA’S INTER-RELIGIOUS CONFLICT THESIS SUBMITTED IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR IN PHILOSOPHY BY ALIYU ODAMAH MUSA OCTOBER 2011 2 ABSTRACT This study is about the coverage of religious conflict in Nigerian newspapers. Although it was not originally intended to compare the coverage of the conflicts between papers in the North and those in the South of Nigeria, the perceived differential situations of the media in the two regions necessitated such a comparison. It is a qualitative research project consisting of three studies: First, there was a comparative critical examination, through critical discourse analysis, of the reports by two newspapers, THISDAY and Daily Trust, during the November 2008 religious violence in Jos, a central Nigerian city. Second, by means of interpretative phenomenological analysis interview data obtained through the semi-structured technique from Nigeria were critically analysed. Third, also applying interpretative phenomenological analysis data obtained by means of focus group interviewing from Nigeria were critically analysed. The results in all three cases suggest the newspapers are regionally, ethnically and religiously inclined; they are particularly affected by factors like ownership, location, staffing and audience perception, which determine how they tailor reports; the newspapers are not usually the cause of religious crises but they stoke the problem through biased and sometimes inflammatory reports; and, although, they are very vibrant factors like Nigeria’s economic recession, political culture – arguably comprising of violence, corruption and tribalism – and new media/technology and so on, contribute towards making their role in the conflicts one of amplification rather than mitigation. The thesis also suggests the application of Allport’s (1954) contact hypothesis using the media as a conduit towards de-emphasising dissimilarities, while emphasising similarities to reduce tension and prevent conflict. 3 DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to the following people: My parents, late Alhaji Musa Ali and Hajiya Khadijat Musa My late uncle, Ahmadu Igietsu My late sister Hauwa Musa and late brother-in-law Abdullahi (Babanyawo) My beloved wife Khadijat Musa and children Imam Ali Musa and Khadijat Niima Musa Also to my brother DSP Hussein Babangida (Musa) And, to all those who have paid a price in one way or the other towards making Nigeria a great nation and the world a safer place 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This journey has been made such a huge success by God Almighty to whom I humbly prostrate and remain totally grateful. I must also express my sincere gratitude to Professor Gerald Pillay and his family for their kind support from the time I started thinking of doing a PhD up until now. Very importantly too, I am grateful to my supervisor Associate Professor Neil Ferguson who started giving me direction and encouragement from the day I had an informal discussion with him in the summer of 2008 through to the completion of this thesis. He has been a very patient and excellent supervisor. I am also very grateful to Dr Terry Phillips and the Faculty of Arts and Humanities who provided me funding to conduct the entire research for three years. To Professor Nick Rees (current Dean of Arts and Humanities) and the Desmond Tutu Centre for War and Peace Studies I must express my genuine appreciation for not only hosting me but for also providing both financial and moral support to conduct my field research in Nigeria in the summer of 2010. To the Department of Politics, History, Media & Communication and its head Associate Professor Michael Mulqueen and staff I say a very big thank you. I also wish to acknowledge the support and encouragement of Sue Harwood (PA to Reverend Professor Kenneth Newport) and Liz Bugler (former research administrator), Dr Jan Jobling as well as Jane Reilly (PA to Dean of Arts & Humanities), Abdul Salam, Faisal Khalil, Samir. All of you and many others that have not been mentioned have made my period of research at Liverpool Hope University a worthwhile experience. Thank you so much. I am grateful to my friends at the Initiatives of Change for encouraging and supporting me especially in times of difficulty. To Howard and Maria Grace, Gerald and 5 Judith Henderson, Dr Alan and Mrs Mary Channer, Dr Imad and Mrs Amira Karam, Geoff and Veronica Craig, Peter and Sue Riddell, Claire Leggat, Reverend Tony Bradley, Mike Murphy, Chris Evans, Imam Ashafa and Pastor James Wuye, Amina Dikedi and Dele, Selly Wane, Amina Khaled, Krish Raval, Denny Braggins and everyone that has been playing a role towards making the world a better place, I say thank you. To my friends back in Nigeria, you have all been with me in prayers and kind support. I am very grateful to Habeeb Pindiga, Tasiu Abdullahi, Amina Alhassan, Danjuma Samaila and his family, Ibrahim Umar, Atiku and family, Abubakar Sani, Abubakar Umar Kari and family, Uwais Abubakar Idris and family, Abdul Aziz Abdullahi, Ahmed Shekarau and family, Jibrin Babayo Suleiman, Kevin Ebele Adinnu, Mr Ossai and students at the Nigerian Film Institute Jos, Ishaq Sidi Ishaq, Aminu Shekarau, Malam Yusuf, Malam Lawan, Hajiya Aisha Yusuf, Muhammed Haruna, Jonathan Ishaku, Andrew Agbese, Mahmud Lalo, Hadiza Hawaja, Simon Reef Musa, Abdul Kareem Aminu, Sam Ndah Isaiah, Nurudeen Abdallah, Jibrin Abubakar, Ahmed Sedik, Sedik Sule and Family, Adinoyi Seriki, Engineer Iliyasu and family, Dr Farouq Kperogi, Tunde Asaju and family, Prince Charles Dickson and Family, Yusuf Ishola, Sheikh Ibrahim, Malam Sule, Malam Nura, Malam Usman and all those that have contributed in making this work a success. Specials thanks to my mother, Hajiya Khadijat, my wife Khadijat, kids Imam and Ni’ima (who had a first-hand experience of my frustration as things got really tough but patiently endured) and to my brothers Muhammed Musa, Hussein Babangida, Abubakar Musa (who volunteered as a research assistant during my field study), Ibrahim Musa and their wives and children, as well as my sisters Hassana, Husseina, Nafisat, Saratu, Salamatu and Asabe and their husbands and children. I am very grateful to my father-in-law, Alhaji Inusa Adamu and mother-in-law, Hajiya Khadijat and members of their family, my uncles 6 Danjuma and Yakubu and their families, and to my cousin Alimotu Abu and her daughter and husband. Also to my cousins in America, Balkisu Musa and her husband and children, Emmanesi Igietsu and his wife and son, Maimuna Umar and her husband and children. Thank you for your sincere support and encouragement. I am also very grateful to Dr Jameel Yusha’u for his kind support and guidance throughout the period of researching and writing up this thesis, Alhaji Garba Sani and his family, Haji Moyi and family, Dr Sunusi Mohammed and Hajiya Safiya and family, Mustapha Salim and family, Abdullahi Sunusi and family, Dr Abba Alkali and family, Dr Mohammed and family, Dr Aji and family, Malam Abubakar and family, Malam Kabiru, Malam Sulaiman and family, Dr Usman Abdullahi family, Aminu Shehu and family, Dr Baffa and family, Malam Ahmad Salis and family, Dr Abdul Gafar and family, Brother Zikrillah and family, Malam Abubakar Sodangi and family, Mal Umar and family, Malam Umar, Malam Idris, Labir, Buhari, Faisal, Ahmed Nyako, Abdel Nassir and family, Mr and Mrs Abdul Wasiu as well as members and EXCO of the Nigerian Muslim Forum UK. Also to Willy Mamah and family, Kayode Ogundamisi and family, and Dr Biodun and family, I say thank you. I cannot afford not to mention my research colleagues like Reverend Larry Ayuba, Reverend Tama, Dr Joe Ewiwilem, Brother Samson, Brother Abdul Kareem, Dr Muhammed Suleiman, Dr Adam, Obinna Anya and family, Emeka and family, Sa’id, Aisha, Ross McGarry. Finally, I remain grateful to Professor Nick Rees (Liverpool Hope University) and Dr Winston Mano (University of Westminster) for accepting to serve as examiners for this thesis as well as Professor Atulya Nagar who chaired the viva voce. Thank you so much. To all those whose names I have missed out, I hold you in high esteem for your support in various ways and will forever be grateful. Thank you so much. Aliyu Musa 7 CONTENTS ABSTRACT .....................................................................................................................................2 DEDICATION .................................................................................................................................3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS..............................................................................................................4 CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................... 10 Introduction................................................................................................................................................... 10 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 10 1.1 BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................................... 16 1.2 NIGERIA: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE............................................................................................. 26 1.3 HISTORY OF NEWSPAPERS IN NIGERIA ..........................................................................................