“SAPIENZA” – UNIVERSITÀ DI ROMA FACOLTÀ DI ECONOMIA DIPARTIMENTO DI MANAGEMENT DOTTORATO DI RICERCA IN “ECONOMIA E FINANZA NEL GOVERNO DELL’IMPRESA” TESI DI DOTTORATO XXVI CICLO MANAGING GROUP DYNAMICS WITH THE VIABLE SYSTEMS APPROACH (VSA) A STUDY ON CONSONANCE, GROUP COHESIVENESS, AND POSITIVE CONFORMITY XHIMI HYSA To Arlinda, her patience and love. Everything we hear is an opinion, not a fact. Everything we see is a perspective, not the truth. Marcus Aurelius ABSTRACT In ancient Greece there was a classical philosophical debate between Parmenides and Heraclitus. Parmenides denied the existence of change and motion. On the other hand, Heraclitus became a precursor of change with his famous statement: “everything is in perpetual flux” – quoted by Plato in his Cratylus (Sedley 2003, pp. 16-19). This discourse can be expressed in different dichotomies that manifest the dualism between structure and system (Barile et al., 2011, pp. 17). So: in physics there is the dichotomy corpuscle-wave; in medicine the dichotomy anatomy-physiology; in business management the dichotomy structure-strategy (Chandler, 1962); in arts the dichotomy photo-video, etc. In synthesis, the discussion above is about statics and dynamics. These general laws, implicitly or explicitly, are applied also on groups in order to study the behavior of individuals. In organizational behavior groups are the second level of investigation, after the individual one. We cannot understand groups if we limit our investigations in a static equilibrium, or only at structural level. Therefore, becomes dutiful to study groups from a systems perspective because the behavior is something dynamic and groups are viable systems able to maintain a separate existence for a defined period (Beer, 1981). This dissertation makes an inquiry to the group phenomena from the perspective of the Viable Systems Approach (Golinelli, 2000a, 2000b, 2002, 2005, 2008, 2010, 2011; Barile, 2000, 2006, 2008a, 2009, 2011; Barile et al., 2011). It is specifically focused in concepts like consonance (De Falco and Gatti, 2012), group cohesiveness (Festinger et al., 1950; Forsyth, 2010), conformity (Asch, 1955) and positive conformity, interpersonal attraction (Lott and Lott, 1965), and optimism (Scheier et al., 1994; Seligman, 2006). The empirical research was entirely conducted at the University of Tirana with the students of Organizational Behavior course. The study/experiment has shown that it was possible (.66) to achieve what the author of this thesis calls positive conformity. Also, the study verified that consonance, as one of the most discussed and researched VSA’s concepts, can be used as a valid indicator of group cohesiveness. Another innovative aspect of this dissertation was a new way of measuring consonance, weaving the apperception test with the value test which confirmed to be very effective. Referring to the dissertation’s framework, the study was devised in five chapters. V The first chapter indicates the structure of the thesis, making an introduction to the study. It refers to the general drafting in which are evidenced the challenges of the actual research and the hypothesis to be verified. It explains also the general framework of the research design. The second chapter is focused in the situation “as-is”. It makes firstly a general review of the literature, ascending then to the specific topics of the literature. In this chapter, a brief presentation of group dynamics and VSA is realized. Chapter three unfolds the research methodology and methods. This is a very important part of the thesis because shows the logical and the scientific itinerary. Chapter four shows and explains the research findings. In this chapter, there is an interpretation of the achieved objectives. This is an essential chapter because measures the effectiveness of the work. Finally, in chapter five, a general discussion follows. The topics are about: - implications that this study has on the academic and the managerial field, especially in the context of organizational behavior; - recommendations for future research with the hope that this thesis turns on the intellectual illumination of other researchers; - limitations, which externalize the awareness of what have been done and what can be done, showing the work’s boundaries; - conclusions, or better: the open conclusions… References Asch, S. E. (1955). “Opinions and Social Pressure”. Scientific American, 193 (5), pp. 31–35. Barile, S. (2008a). L’impresa come sistema: Contributi sull’Approccio Sistemico Vitale, 2nd Ed. Torino: Giappichelli. Barile, S. (2009). Management Sistemico Vitale: Decidere in contesti complessi. Torino: Giappichelli. Barile, S. (2011). Management Sistemico Vitale: Decisioni e scelte in ambito complesso. Avellino: International Printing. Barile, S. (Ed.) (2000). Contributi sul pensiero sistemico in economia d’impresa, Collana di Studi Aziendali e di Marketing - Centro Studi di Tecniche Aziendali “Arnia”. Salerno: WM Stampa Editoriale. VI Barile, S. (Ed.) (2006). L’impresa come sistema: Contributi sull’Approccio Sistemico Vitale, 1st Ed. Torino: Giappichelli. Barile, S., Bassano, C., Calabrese, M., Confetto, M., Di Nauta, P., Piciocchi, P., Polese, F., Saviano, M., Siano, A., Siglioccolo, M., & Vollero, A. (2011). Contributions to Theoretical and Practical Advances in Management: A Viable Systems Approach (VSA). Avellino: International Printing Editore. Beer, S. (1981). Brain of the firm, 2nd Ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Chandler, A.D. Jr. (1962). Strategy and Structure: Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press De Falco, S.E., Gatti, C. (2012). La Consonanza Nel Governo D’impresa: Profili Teorici E Applicazioni. Milano: FrancoAngeli. Festinger, L., Schachter, S., Back, K. (1950). Social Pressures in Informal Groups. New York: Harper. Forsyth, D.R. (2010). Group Dynamics, 5th Ed. California: Cengage Learning. Golinelli, G.M. (2000a). L’approccio Sistemico al Governo dell’Impresa: L’impresa sistema vitale, Vol. 1. Padova: Cedam. Golinelli, G.M. (2000b). L’approccio Sistemico al Governo dell’Impresa: La dinamica evolutiva del sistema impresa tra economia e finanza, Vol. 2. Padova: Cedam. Golinelli, G.M. (2002). L’approccio Sistemico al Governo dell’Impresa: Valorizzazione delle capacità, rapporti intersistemici e rischio nell’azione di governo, Vol. 3. Padova: Cedam. Golinelli, G.M. (2005). L’approccio Sistemico al Governo dell’Impresa: L’impresa sistema vitale, Vol. 1, 2nd Ed. Padova: Cedam. Golinelli, G.M. (2008). L’approccio Sistemico al Governo dell’Impresa: Verso la Scientificazione dell’Azione di Governo, Vol. 2. Padova: Cedam. Golinelli, G.M. (2010). Viable Systems Approach (VSA): Governing Business Dynamics. Padova: Kluwer (Cedam). Golinelli, G.M. (2011). L’approccio Sistemico al Governo dell’Impresa: Verso la Scientificazione dell’Azione di Governo, Vol. 2, 2nd Ed. Padova: Cedam. Lott, A. J., Lott, B. E. (1965). “Group cohesiveness as interpersonal attraction: A review of relationships with antecedent and consequent variables”. Psychological Bulletin, 64 (4), pp. 259–309. Scheier, M. F., Carver, C. S., Bridges, M. W. (1994). “Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self-mastery, and self-esteem): A reevaluation of the Life Orientation Test”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, pp. 1063–1078. Sedley, D. (2003). Plato’s Cratylus. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seligman, M.E.P. (2006). Learned Optimism: How to Change Your Mind and Your Life. Ney York: Vintage Books. VII CONTENTS ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................................. IV PREFACE................................................................................................................................................ XI ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................................... XIII Chapter I INTRODUCTION 1.1. Problem statement.......................................................................................................................... 1 1.2. Research questions and hypothesis .............................................................................................. 4 1.3. Purpose of the study ...................................................................................................................... 5 1.4. Context and significance of the study ......................................................................................... 6 1.5. Preliminary considerations on the methodology ....................................................................... 8 1.6. Definitions of terms ..................................................................................................................... 10 References ............................................................................................................................................. 12 Chapter II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1. Theoretical perspectives on group dynamics: first studies and other reflections................ 18 2.2. Groups in systems thinking: from Tavistock Institute to Mental Research Institute of Palo Alto and beyond .......................................................................................................................... 27 2.3. Toward groups as viable systems and information varieties: a Viable Systems Approach (VSA) proposition ...............................................................................................................................