Wolves in sheep’s skin A Rapid Assessment of Human Trafficking in Musina, Limpopo Province of South Africa The opinions expressed in the report are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the International Organization for Migration (IOM). The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout the report do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IOM concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning its frontiers or boundaries. _______________ IOM is committed to the principle that humane and orderly migration benefits migrants and society. As an intergovernmental organization, IOM acts with its partners in the international community to: assist in meeting the operational challenges of migration; advance understanding of migration issues; encourage social and economic development through migration; and uphold the human dignity and well-being of migrants. _______________ Publisher: International Organization for Migration 17 route des Morillons 1211 Geneva 19 Switzerland Tel: +41.22.717 91 11 Fax: +41.22.798 61 50 E-mail: [email protected] Internet: http://www.iom.int _______________ © 2010 International Organization for Migration (IOM) _______________ All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher. Wolves in Sheep’s Skin A Rapid Assessment of Human Trafficking in Musina, Limpopo Province of South Africa Prepared for IOM by Zosa De Sas Kropiwnicki, PhD TABLE OF CONTENTS Executive Summary................................................................................................................................ iv Acronyms ................................................................................................................................................ v CHAPTER 1: Introduction ..................................................................................................................1 1.1 Objectives ..............................................................................................................................1 1.2 Scope of work ........................................................................................................................1 1.3 Challenges and limitations.....................................................................................................5 1.4 Ethics .....................................................................................................................................6 CHAPTER 2: Research Definitions and International Conventions...................................................7 2.1 Trafficking in persons ............................................................................................................7 2.2 Sale of children ......................................................................................................................9 2.3 Exploitation............................................................................................................................9 2.4 Migrant worker’s rights .......................................................................................................10 2.5 Other international instruments .........................................................................................10 2.6 National legislation..............................................................................................................11 CHAPTER 3: Literature Review........................................................................................................14 3.1 Trafficking from Zimbabwe to South Africa ........................................................................14 3.2 Children on the move ..........................................................................................................15 3.3 Adults on the move .............................................................................................................16 3.4 Conclusion ...........................................................................................................................18 CHAPTER 4: Research Findings .......................................................................................................20 4.1 Vulnerability/risk factors .....................................................................................................20 4.1.1 Macro political and socio‐economic factors in Zimbabwe .............................................20 4.1.2 Porous borders................................................................................................................20 4.1.3 The visa regime ...............................................................................................................21 4.1.4 Criminal networks and a “culture of violence and deception”.......................................22 4.1.5 Gender.............................................................................................................................23 4.1.6 Unaccompanied child minors..........................................................................................24 4.1.7 Interpersonal problems in the home of origin................................................................24 4.1.8 Lack of awareness and experience..................................................................................25 4.2 Cases of human trafficking ..................................................................................................26 4.2.1 Kidnapping, smuggling or trafficking?.............................................................................26 4.3 Trafficking for sexual exploitation .......................................................................................28 4.3.1 Sexual exploitation..........................................................................................................29 i 4.3.2 Sexual exploitation in transit...........................................................................................31 4.3.3 Sex work as a risk factor in the context of trafficking.....................................................32 4.3.4 Rethinking gender‐based exploitation............................................................................35 4.4 Trafficking for labour exploitation.......................................................................................36 4.4.1 “Being dropped”..............................................................................................................37 4.4.2 Labour exploitation .........................................................................................................38 4.5 Trafficking for the sale of illegal substances and criminal activity ......................................41 4.6 Trafficking of children for extortion and exploitation.........................................................42 4.6.1 “Unaccompanied minors”...............................................................................................42 4.6.2 Debt bondage..................................................................................................................45 CHAPTER 5: Policy and Practice with regard to Trafficking in Persons...........................................48 5.1 Identification of trafficking cases ........................................................................................48 5.2 Referral ................................................................................................................................49 5.3 Investigation and prosecution.............................................................................................50 5.4 Shelter and assistance .........................................................................................................52 5.5 Return and reintegration.....................................................................................................55 5.6 Prevention ...........................................................................................................................56 CHAPTER 6: Health Risks Associated with Trafficking in Persons...................................................61 6.1 Origin or pre‐departure phase ............................................................................................61 6.2 Transit/transportation phase ..............................................................................................62 6.3 Destination phase................................................................................................................64 6.3.1 Physical health problems ................................................................................................64 6.3.2 Sexual and reproductive health problems......................................................................64 6.3.4 Limited access to health care..........................................................................................65 6.4 Reception, integration and reintegration phases................................................................67 Conclusion and Recommendations ......................................................................................................70 Evidence‐based policy and practice..................................................................................................72 Identification.................................................................................................................................72