The Alt-Right's Metaphoric Construction of Black, Muslim

The Alt-Right's Metaphoric Construction of Black, Muslim

Among Us, Around Us, Against Us: The Alt-Right’s Metaphoric Construction of Black, Muslim, Jewish, and Transgender Others as Monstrous in Anonymous Fora Katharina J. Nordbø Master’s Thesis in English Linguistics Department of Foreign Languages University of Bergen, June 2021 Sammendrag Denne masteroppgaven tar for seg hvordan brukere av alt-right (ofte oversatt som ‘alternativhøyre’) nettfora bruker elementer av det monstrøse i beskrivelser av ulike grupper mennesker. Nærmere bestemt, ser jeg i denne oppgaven på hvordan Mørkhudede (‘Black’), Muslimske, Jødiske, og transkjønnede personer fremstilles som monstre, både gjennom direkte metaforer og gjennom å bli tilskrevet trekk som kjennetegner det monstrøse. Alt-right er et relativt nytt fenomen som oppstod mellom ca 2014 og 2016, og kjennetegnes bl.a. av rasisme, antisemitisme, hvit overmakt, og patriarkalske holdninger, samt av å være et hovedsakelig digitalt fenomen. Tidligere forskning på høyreekstreme og fremmedfientlige diskurser har funnet at ulike grupper (f.eks. homofile og folk med andre hudfarger eller kulturelle tilhørigheter) konstrueres som en truende Andre; blant annet brukes monstermetaforer for å skape et narrativ om at den Andre utgjør en trussel som man må forsvare seg mot. Å studere metaforer som konstruerer mennesker som den monstrøse Andre, kan hjelpe oss å forstå mer om strømninger i samfunnet, siden diskurser om monstre gjenspeiler samfunnets frykter og usikkerheter. Samtidig kan monstermetaforer bevisst brukes for å skape og opprettholde en maktubalanse. Lakoff og Johnsons kognitive metaforteori hevder at vi forstår mye av livene våre gjennom metaforer. Abstrakte og/eller fremmede ting forstås og struktureres gjennom å bruke mer konkrete konsepter, og konseptene vi bruker som kilder i denne sammenheng, vil påvirke ikke bare hvordan vi tenker og snakker om ting, men også hvordan vi handler. Dermed kan språklige og kognitive monstermetaforer motivere fysiske handlinger mot ‘monstrene.’ I denne oppgaven analyserer jeg språkdata fra tre nettfora med tilknytning til the alt-right, og kategoriserer beskrivelser av Mørkhudede, Muslimske, Jødiske, og transkjønnede personer ut ifra direkte monstermetaforer samt elementer av det monstrøse. Analysen viser at alle fire grupper beskrives som monstrøse, og at det er betydelige forskjeller i hva slags type monstre de omtales som, og hva slags monstrøse egenskaper eller trekk de tilskrives. I tillegg er det variasjoner mellom de tre foraene jeg ser på, både i forhold til hvilke grupper som omtales oftest, samt hvilke monstrøse trekk hver gruppe tilskrives. Acknowledgments I would like to express my gratitude to my thesis supervisor, Bente Hannisdal, for valuable input, feedback, and patience throughout the entire writing process, and to John-Wilhelm Flattun, for providing me with valuable input and resources, as well as pointing me to others who could help me with figuring out my practical approach to data gathering. I also wish to thank my friend Audun for writing the web scraper script for this thesis from scratch and helping out with formatting issues, and my wife Johanna for infinite kindness and support. Table of Contents 1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Aim and Scope ....................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Research Questions ................................................................................................................ 2 1.3 Structure ................................................................................................................................. 2 1.4 A note on terminology and language ..................................................................................... 2 2. THEORY ..................................................................................................................................... 3 2.1 Chapter outline ....................................................................................................................... 3 2.2 Discourse Analysis ................................................................................................................. 3 2.3 Cognitive Linguistics ............................................................................................................. 4 2.3.1 Embodiment and Grounding .......................................................................................... 5 2.3.2 Categorisation .................................................................................................................. 5 2.3.1 Cognitive Theory of Metaphor ........................................................................................ 5 2.4 The alt-right .......................................................................................................................... 10 2.4.1 Features of the alt-right ................................................................................................. 11 2.4.2 Looking back and looking forward ............................................................................... 12 2.5 Forum discourse ................................................................................................................... 13 2.5.1 Previous research on far-right discourse and Othering on online fora .......................... 15 2.6 Monstrous Others ................................................................................................................. 18 2.6.1 The Other ....................................................................................................................... 18 2.6.2 Monstrous Traits ........................................................................................................... 19 2.6.2.1 Monsters as cultural signs or symbols........................................................................ 20 2.6.2.2 Monsters as tools for policing the Self ....................................................................... 22 2.6.2.3 Monsters as justifications of violence against the Other ............................................ 22 2.6.3 History’s monsters ......................................................................................................... 23 2.7 Research gaps ....................................................................................................................... 26 3. METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................... 29 3.1 Chapter Outline .................................................................................................................... 29 3.2 Data collection ...................................................................................................................... 29 3.2.1 The Sources ................................................................................................................... 29 3.2.2 Methods of collection .................................................................................................... 31 3.2.3 Timeframe and volume of data ..................................................................................... 33 3.2.4 Challenges to data collection ......................................................................................... 33 3.3 Qualitative Analysis ............................................................................................................. 34 3.3.1 Identifying Metaphors ................................................................................................... 35 3.3.2 Challenges with metaphor identification ....................................................................... 36 3.3.3 The Analytical Categories ............................................................................................. 36 3.4 Quantitative Analysis ........................................................................................................... 40 3.5 Research Ethics .................................................................................................................... 41 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION............................................................................................... 42 4.1 The Black Other ................................................................................................................... 43 4.1.1 Quantitative Findings .................................................................................................... 43 4.1.2 GENERIC MONSTER Metaphors ...................................................................................... 46 4.1.3 MYTHICAL MONSTER Metaphors ................................................................................... 47 4.1.4 BIBLICAL MONSTER Metaphors ..................................................................................... 47 4.1.5 BESTIAL Metaphors ....................................................................................................... 48 4.1.6 ABJECT Traits ................................................................................................................ 50 4.1.7 DISEASE AND PARASITISM Metaphors ........................................................................... 51 4.1.8 LARGE NUMBERS ........................................................................................................... 52 4.1.9 SEXUAL THREATS .........................................................................................................

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