Beyond the Sixties Scoop: Reclaiming Indigenous identity, reconnection to place, and reframing understandings of being Indigenous by Sarah Wright Cardinal B.A., University of British Columbia, 1993 M.A., School for International Training, USA, 2003 A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in the Department of Curriculum & Instruction © Sarah Wright Cardinal, 2017 University of Victoria All rights reserved. This dissertation may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without the permission of the author. Supervisory Committee Beyond the Sixties Scoop: Reclaiming Indigenous identity, reconnection to place, and reframing understandings of being Indigenous by Sarah Wright Cardinal B.A., University of British Columbia, 1993 M.A., School for International Training, USA, 2003 Supervisory Committee Dr. Helen Raptis, Supervisor Department of Curriculum & Instruction Dr. Wanda Hurren, Departmental Member Department of Curriculum & Instruction Dr. Anne Marshall, Outside Member Department of Educational Psychology & Leadership Studies Dr. Heidi Kiiwetinepinesiik Stark, Outside Member Department of Political Science ii Abstract This study used life experience methods to gather the narratives of seven adult Indigenous transracial adoptees who have reclaimed their Indigenous identities after experiencing closed adoption during the late 1950s through to the early 1980s. Participants had been members of Aboriginal (First Nations, Metis, Inuit) communities at birth but were then raised outside their Indigenous nations in non-Indigenous families. Through analysis of their stories, I identified four themes that marked their trajectories to reclamation: Imposed fracture (prior to reclamation); Little anchors (beginning healing); Coming home (on being whole); Our sacred bundle (reconciling imposed fracture). Their stories of reconnecting to their Indigeneity, decolonizing and healing illustrate their shifts from hegemonic discourse spaces that characterized their lived experiences as “other” to spirit-based discourses that center Indigenous knowledge systems as valid, life affirming, and life changing. This dissertation contributes to the debate on state sanctioned removal of children and the impacts of loss of Indigenous identity in Canadian society. My findings indicate that cultural and spiritual teachings and practices, as well as, the knowledge of colonization and its impacts on Indigenous families, communities, and nations, all contributed to adoptees’ healing and ability to move forward in their lives. Key recommendations include: further exploration of the concept of cultural genocide in relation to settler-colonial relations in Canada; further examination of the intersection of counter-narratives, resistance discourse, and colonial violence; increased investigation of the connections between Indigenous knowledge systems, living spirit-based teachings and educative aspects of community wellness; and more research examining education beyond formal schooling, including the formative effects upon Indigenous youth of social values, public policy, and legal frameworks. iii Table of Contents Supervisory Committee ...................................................................................................... ii Abstract ............................................................................................................................ ..iii Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... iv List of Tables………………………………………………………………………...…..vii List of Figures……….……………………………………………………………..……viii Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………....….ix Dedication…………………………………………………………………………….…...x Chapter One: Introduction ..................................................................................................1 Purpose and Research Questions ............................................................................. 6 Overview of Research Process…………………….………………………………7 Life-story interviews………………………………………………………9 Sharing circle……………...……………………………………………..10 Analysis of stories…………….……………………….…………………10 Significance of the Study………………….……………………………………..11 Definition of Terms………………...…………………………………………….13 Overview of the Chapters………………..………………………………………17 Chapter Summary………..………………………………………………………18 Chapter Two: Literature Review & Theoretical Perspectives…………………………...19 The Sixties Scoop Literature………………….………………………………….20 Phase One – Child well-being (1950’s to 1970’s)……………………….21 Phase Two: Self-governing Indigenous welfare agencies (mid 1970s- 1990s)…………………………………………………………………….24 Phase Three: Issues of adoptee identity (2000-present)…………............26 Theoretical Perspectives…………………………………………………………30 Post-colonial Indigenous identities………………………............………31 Indigenous understandings of education………………........……………40 Decolonization Practices…………………………………………....……47 Indigenous Resurgence…………………………………………....……..55 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….59 Chapter Summary………………………………………………………………..59 Chapter Three: Methodology……………………………............……………………….61 Research Assumptions and Guiding Principles………………………………….61 Research Methods/Approaches…………………………………………………..63 Life-experience stories…………………………………………………...65 Narrative inquiry…………………………………………………………68 Establishing respectful research relationships…………………………...70 Spirituality……………………………………………………….70 Relationship Building……………………………………………73 Community Reciprocity………………………………………….75 iv “Self Work” in preparation………………………………………76 Develop-eyes…………………………………………….78 Colon-eyes……………………………………………….80 Indigen-eyes……………………………………………...81 Spiritual-eyes…………………………………………….83 Reclaiming identity: a spirit-based discourse……………84 Participants……………………………………………………………………….87 Data Collection Procedures………………………………………………………90 Data Analysis……………………………………………………….....................98 Theoretical frames – critical race theory and education…………………98 Analysis of interviews…………………………………………………..102 Chapter Summary……………………………………..………………………..104 Chapter Four: Findings…………………………………………………………………106 Introduction……………………………………………………………………..106 Analysis………………………………………………………………………....106 Demographics: An Overview…………………………………………………..107 Interview Themes……………………………………………………………....108 Theme 1: ‘Imposed Fracture’ – Before Reclaiming Identity…………..110 Disconnection…………………………………………………..110 Marginalization and bullying…………………………………..113 Racism and internalized racism………………………………...115 Theme 2: ‘Little Anchors’ – Beginning the Healing Process (Reacculturating)…………………………………………………..……120 Pathways to Initial Healing……………………………………..123 Internal emotional processes……………………………………124 Being introduced to culture and ceremony……………………..128 Theme 3: ‘Coming Home’ – On being whole………………………….132 Connection to Place…………………………………………….133 Internal processes of becoming a spiritual being……………….138 Theme 4: ‘Our Sacred Bundle’ – Reconciling the imposed fracture…..141 Participant contributions today…………………………………143 Kanika Tsi Tsa………………………..……………………..….144 Lisa…………………………………..………………………….145 Colleen………………………………….…………………...….145 Duane…………………………………………………………...146 Elizabeth……………………………………………….…....….147 Shawn………………….………………………………..………148 Raven………………………………………………………..….149 Conclusion……………………………………………………………….……..149 Chapter Summary………………………………………………………………151 Chapter Five: Discussion, Implications, and Recommendations…………………….…152 Introduction……………………………………………………………………..152 Discussion………………………………………………………………………153 v How have adults who were fostered or adopted from their communities during the Sixties Scoop reclaimed their Indigenous identity?...............153 Does this reclamation include connection to place? If yes, what does connection to place mean to the former adoptees?..................................158 Role of Extended Family……………………………………….160 Knowing the Place of My Ancestors and the Land…………….161 Belonging to an Indigenous community………………………..162 Through the process of reclaiming identity, have participants’ understandings of being Indigenous changed? If so, how?.....................163 Hegemonic discourse……………………………………….…..163 Spirit-based discourses………………………………………….165 Unexpected Findings…………………………………………………………...167 Limitations……………………………………………………………………..169 Implications and Recommendations……………………………………………170 Implications for theory: Living spirit-based teachings ………………...170 Future scholarly inquiry: Healing from colonial violence………....…...172 Challenging hegemonic discourse with counter-narratives…….173 Education practice: Decolonization and reconciliation………………...175 Reframing Education Discourses……………………………….175 An example of mindful practice in post-secondary practice…...177 Reconciliation: The Truth & Reconciliation Commission……..179 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………...181 References………………………………………………………………………………184 Appendix………………………………………………………………………………..199 Appendix A: Recruitment Flyer………………………………………………………...200 Appendix B: Participant Consent Letter………………………………………………..201 Appendix C: Introduction & Recruitment Script IAG……………………………….…204 Appendix D: Recruitment Script Participants…………………………………………..206 Appendix E: Participant Verbal Consent……………………………………………….208 Appendix F: Ethics Certificate of Approval………………..………………………......209 Appendix G: Participant Interview Questions………………………………………….210 Appendix H: Participant Sharing Circle Questions…………………………………….211 vi List of Tables Table 3.1. Brief Participant Information……………………...…………………….p. 90 Table 4.1. List