INVISIBLE RELIGION IN ANCIENT EGYPT A study into the individual religiosity of non-royal and non-elite ancient Egyptians by LAURA MAY DEWSBURY A thesis submitted to the University of Birmingham for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Classics, Ancient History and Archaeology University of Birmingham January 2016 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. ABSTRACT The research presented in this thesis applies Thomas Luckmann’s theory of invisible religion to three aspects of ancient Egyptian culture (festivals, household and personal items, and communication with the dead and with gods). The intention is firstly to address the four key issues that have arisen as a result of previous research into personal religion in ancient Egypt, secondly to determine whether ordinary ancient Egyptians possessed individual religiosity, and thirdly to establish whether the three aspects of ancient Egyptian culture considered can be viewed as examples of invisible religion. With regards to the four key issues, this research concludes: there was a link between individual religiosity and state religion; the intimacy of ordinary ancient Egyptians’ emotions relating to individual religiosity varied; individual religiosity was not a phenomenon of the lower classes; individual religiosity was not an innovation of the New Kingdom. In addition, it is shown that ordinary ancient Egyptians did possess individual religiosity but that each person would have created, maintained, engaged with, and internalised the universe of meaning (as described by Luckmann) to a different extent. Finally, this research concludes that the three aspects of ancient Egyptian culture considered can be viewed as examples of invisible religion. To my husband. For reminding me that only when it is darkest can you see the stars. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am sincerely grateful to my grandparents, Henry and Sheila Casley, and to my parents, Mark and Nicola Grimshaw, for providing the funding that allowed me to carry out this research. Without them it would not have been possible. I would also like to acknowledge the University of Birmingham for making funding available via the Research Support Fund which enabled me to attend and present at numerous conferences. I am indebted to my supervisor, Dr Martin Bommas. When I tentatively approached him regarding the possibility of undertaking a PhD, his enthusiasm and encouragement made me have faith in myself and my ability to carry out doctoral level research. Martin has provided me with expertise and guidance, and his passion for Egyptology frequently lifted my spirits when my own passion was lost among countless notes, references, and chapter revisions. On a personal level, the journey towards completing my PhD has been extremely testing and, at times, seemingly endless. I was not prepared for the isolation that so often comes with research of this nature and, as a result, I have learnt some invaluable lessons about myself. Despite the challenges, I have remained extremely appreciative that I have been privileged enough to be able to research the fascinating culture of ancient Egypt. My family and friends have offered me superb support throughout my PhD, from putting up with my endless ‘interesting facts’ about ancient Egypt to listening to me panic about impending deadlines (which had usually been set by me!). Knowing that I had many ears to bend and shoulders to cry on was enormously reassuring. Finally, I would like to thank my wonderful husband, Jonathan, for helping me through this process from start to finish. He has supported me in every way possible and without him my PhD journey would have been a very solitary experience. He has kept me together during the difficult times and danced around the kitchen with me during the good times. Above all, his belief in me has never wavered and for that I am truly thankful. TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Research aims and objectives ...................................................................................... 3 1.2 Methodology ................................................................................................................ 5 1.3 Areas not considered ................................................................................................... 8 2 Literature Review ...................................................................................................... 11 2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 11 2.2 Thomas Luckmann’s invisible religion ....................................................................... 12 2.2.1 Key aspects of Luckmann’s invisible religion ...................................................... 12 2.2.2 Analyses of Luckmann’s invisible religion .......................................................... 16 2.2.3 Egyptology and Luckmann’s invisible religion .................................................... 19 2.2.4 Individual religiosity and Luckmann’s invisible religion ..................................... 22 2.3 Brief history of research into the Self ........................................................................ 24 2.3.1 The Self in Egyptology ........................................................................................ 31 2.4 History of research into personal religion ................................................................. 32 i Table of Contents 2.5 Current schools of thought regarding the study of personal religion ....................... 47 2.6 Key issues in the study of personal religion ............................................................... 49 2.7 Terminology ............................................................................................................... 52 2.7.1 Existing terminology ........................................................................................... 53 2.7.2 Definition of ‘religiosity’ ..................................................................................... 58 2.8 History of research into the three aspects of ancient Egyptian culture .................... 59 2.8.1 Festivals .............................................................................................................. 59 2.8.2 Household and personal items ........................................................................... 67 2.8.3 Communication with the dead and with gods ................................................... 75 3 Festivals..................................................................................................................... 85 3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 85 3.2 Invisible religion and festivals in ancient Egypt ......................................................... 86 3.3 The Festival of Osiris at Abydos ................................................................................. 90 3.4 The Festival of Osiris and invisible religion .............................................................. 100 3.4.1 Attendance ....................................................................................................... 100 3.4.2 Active involvement in the open part of the festival ......................................... 101 3.4.3 Creation and/or giving of offerings .................................................................. 102 ii Table of Contents 3.4.4 Further action specific to the festival ............................................................... 103 3.4.5 Use of statues or stelae .................................................................................... 103 3.4.6 Re-attendance .................................................................................................. 104 3.4.7 Personal burial .................................................................................................. 105 3.5 The Beautiful Feast of the Valley at Thebes ............................................................ 106 3.6 The Beautiful Feast of the Valley and invisible religion ........................................... 118 3.6.1 Attendance ....................................................................................................... 119 3.6.2 Active involvement in the open part of the festival ......................................... 120 3.6.3 Creation and/or giving of offerings .................................................................. 121 3.6.4 Further action specific to the festival ............................................................... 122 3.6.5 Use of statues or stelae .................................................................................... 123 3.6.6 Re-attendance .................................................................................................. 124 3.6.7 Personal burial .................................................................................................