ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 11 FORWARD 13 GENERAL INTRODUCTION 15 1 AFRICAN TRADITIONAL BELIEFS AND EXPERIENCES 24 1.1. Introduction 24 1.2. African World Views 25 1.3 Concept and Experience of God (Chukwu) 31 1.3.1 Misconception and De-misconception of African Experience of God 31 1.3.2 Supreme Being (Chukwu) in Igbo Traditional Religion 34 1.3.3 God's Name in Igbo land: Definition and Meaning 35 1.3.3.1 Personal Names of God 36 1.3.3.2 Title Names of God 39 1.4. Worship of Supreme Being in ATR: Igbo Experience 40 1.5 Belief and Experience of other Deities 44 1.5.1 Anyanwu (Sun-deity) 44 1.5.2 Igwe (Sky-deity) 45 1.5.3 Amadioha (God of Thunder and Lightning) 45 1.5.4. Ana (Earth-godness) 46 1.6 Spiritual Forces (Arusi) 49 1.6.1 Ifejioku 49 1.6.2 AgwuNsi 50 1.6.3 Mami Wata (Mermaid spirit) 50 1.6.4 River Gods 51 1.6.5 Ndichie (Ancestors) 51 1.7 Personal and Household Gods 52 1.7.1 Ikenga 52 1.7.2 Chi 52 1.7.3 Totem Animals and Trees 53 1.8 African Traditional Religion: Monotheistic or Polytheistic 54 1.8.1 Some Views on the Concepts of Monotheism and Polytheism in ATR 54 1.8.2 Are Deities and other Spiritual Forces Worshipped in Igbo Religion?58 1.9 Anthropocentric Pragmatism in ATR 64 1.10 Conclusion 66 2. THE CONCEPT OF MORALITY: GOOD AND EVIL IN IGBOWORLDVIEW 68 2.1 Introduction 68 2.2 Three Main Dimensions of Morality in Igbo land 69 2.2.1 The Supernatural Dimension 69 2.2.2 Communitarian or Social Dimension 70 2.2.3 Personal Dimension 76 2.3 Anthropocentric- Theocentrism in Igbo Morality 78 2.4 Sense of Goodness 80 2.5 Sense of Evil 81 Bibliografische Informationen digitalisiert durch http://d-nb.info/1016365713 6 2.6. "Ogbuturu Ojuturu" (causes and effect) in Igbo Concepts of Good and Evil 85 2.6.1 Ogbuturu Ojuturu" in the Context of Retribution 88 2.7 Suffering and Misfortune: the Role of Good and Bad Spirits 93 2.7.1 Death 94 2.7.2 OnwuEkwensu 95 2.7.3 Onwu Ojoo (bad death) 96 2.7.4 Onwu Nwufu (lost death) 96 2.7.5 Onwu Afufu (painful death) 96 2.7.6 Onwu Ifele (Disgraceful or shameful death) 97 2.7.7 Onwu Chi (Natural death) 97 2.7.8 Other Forms of Suffering and misfortune 98 2.8. Suffering and Misfortune: Good Spirits, Evil Spirits and Human Agents of Evil 99 2.8.1 Good Spirits 100 2.8.1.1 Supreme Being 100 2.8.1.2 Deities 101 2.8.1.3 Minor Spirits or Divinities (Arasi) 101 2.8.1.4 The Ancestors 102 2.8.1.5 Masquerades 102 2.9. Evil Spirits and Human Misfortunes 103 2.9.1 Ekwensu (devil) 104 2.9.2 Ulu-Chi (destroyer of fortune) 105 2.9.3 Mami Wata (mother of waters or queen of the coast) 106 2.9.4 Ogbanje (Born to die Spirit) 106 2.9.5 Ogbonuke (Dead Age-Grade Spirits) 107 2.9.6 Akalogeli (spirits of adults who died miserably or without children) 107 2.9.7 Wicked Masquerades (Ajo Mmonwu n'aku Ogwu) 107 2.10 Misfortunes and Human Agents of Evils 108 2.10.1 Amusu na Ogboma (Witchcraft) 108 2.10.2. Deo Nsi maobu Ochuch (Sorcery) 109 2.11 Conclusion Ill 3. MISFORTUNES AND AFFLICTIONS: SOLUTION-SEARCH AND REMEDY: AN IGBO EXPERIENCE 112 3.1 Introduction 112 3.2 The Igbo concept of Life 112 3.2.1 The Composition of Man in Igbo Anthropology vis-à-vis the Essence of Life (Ndu) 113 3.3. Enhancement of Human Life Moving from Affliction and Misfortune to Wellness 118 3.3.1 Traditional priests: Importance and Functions 119 3.3.2 The Lineage Priests 119 3.3.3 The Deity (shrine) Priests 120 3.3.4 The Designated Priests 120 3.3.5 Itinerant Nri Priests 121 3.4 Nde Dibia (Traditional Doctors) and their Roles in the Society 121 3.4.1 Dibia Mgborogwu na Mkpa-akwukwo (Herbalist) 122 3.4.2 Dibia Afa or Dibia oje nammuo (Diviner) 123 3.4.3 Dibia Aja (Priest doctor) 127 3.4.4 Dibia Nsi na Ochuchu (sorcerer) 127 3.4.5 Dibia Mmiri (Rain Maker) 128 3.4.6 Dibia na-apu Mba (Itinerant Doctors) 128 3.5 Consultation of Oracles 128 3.6 Sacrifices and Offerings to Spiritual Beings 131 3.6.1 Ichu Aja (Sacrifice) 132 3.6.2 The Divisions of Sacrifice in Traditional Igbo Religion 133 3.6.2.1 Propitiatory Sacrifice 133 3.6.2.2 Preventive Sacrifice 136 3.6.2.3 Substitutionary Sacrifice 137 3.6.2.4 Votive Sacrifice 137 3.6.2.5 Thank-Offering 138 3.6.2.6 Foundation Sacrifice 138 3.7 Prayer 139 3.7.1 Prayer Objects 141 3.7.1.1 Oji (kola nut) 141 3.7.1.2 Nzu (Phallic chalk) 142 3.7.1.3 Oji (Metal staff) 142 3.7.1.4 Uhie (Large wooden gong) 143 3.7.1.5 Ofo Stick (Detarium Senegalense) 143 3.8 Other Socio-Cultural Rituals that are not Sacrifice 143 3.8.1 IgbaNdu (Covenant Making) 144 3.8.2 Inu Iyi (Oath taking) 145 3.8.3 Ikpu Oji Ala (Eating Kola nut from the Shrine of Earth-deity 146 3.8.4 Ikpu Iyi (Dragging a Deity's Insignia) 146 3.8.5 Ipulsi Ala (Ritual Apology) 147 3.8.6 Ibu Ihu (Tribute or Ancestral Loyalty) 147 3.8.7 Use of Amulets and Charms 148 3.9 Conclusion 150 4 THE DAWN OF CHRISTIANITY IN IGBOLAND: CONTACT, CHANGES AND CONFLICTS IN IGBO RELIGION AND CULTURE 153 4.1 Introduction 153 4.2 Initial Contact with the Europeans: Trade 154 4.3 Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade 155 4.4 Impact and socio-cultural Changes 157 4.5 Legitimate Commerce an Alternative to Slave Trade 158 4.6 Early Missionary Background for Evangelisation in Igbo Land 160 4.7 Enabler Factors to the Plantating of Christianity in Igbo Land 161 4.8 Missionary Activities in Igbo Land Pioneer Missionaries (CMS) 165 4.8.1 Frictions among the Church Missionary Society 167 4.8.2 Catholicism in Igbo Land 169 4.8.3 Other Mainline Protestant Churches 172 4.9 The Birth of Independent Churches and Prayer Ministries in Igbo Land 173 4.10 Methods of Missionary Evangelisation in Igbo Land 179 4.10.1 Gifts-Giving as a means of Conversion 179 4.10.2 Ransoming Slaves and Accepting Social Outcasts in the Church 180 4.10.3 Christian Village 180 4.10.4 Education and Catechesis 182 4.10.5 Charity Apostolate and Humanitarian Services 185 4.10.6 Hospital Apostolate 186 4.10.7 UseofCatechists 188 4.10.8 Rivalry and Competition 189 4.10.9 Psychological Appeals 191 4.10.10 Cooperation with Communities and Government 191 4.11 The Missionary Evangelisation: an Encounter, Confrontation and Conflict With Igbo Traditional Beliefs and Practices 192 4.11.1 Human Sacrifice 193 4.11.2 Osu Caste System 194 4.11.3 Twins Killing 196 4.11.4 Ancestors and Burials 196 4.11.5 Attack on Sacred Institutions and Places 198 4.11.6 Being a Custodian of Ofo as an Insignia of Gerontocracy 199 4.11.7 Ozo Title Taking 200 4.11.8 Polygamy 202 4.11.9 Widowhood 203 4.11.10 Masquerades 204 4.11.11 Disorganization of Social and Normative Patterns of Life 205 4.11.12 Reincarnation 205 4.12 Psycho-socio-cultural Impact of Missionary Evangelization 206 4.12.1 Internal Crisis 207 4.12.2 Ideological Crisis 207 4.12.3 Socio-religious Crisis 208 4.12.4 Physical Assaults 209 4.12.5 Mystico-spiritual Strategy of Resistance 210 4.13 Conclusion 210 5. THE GROWTH OF CHRISTIAN FAITH AND NEW PROBLEMS 212 5.1 Introduction 212 5.2 Growth of Christian population 213 5.3 Establishment of Seminaries and Indigenous Congregations 214 5.3.1 Junior Seminaries 215 5.3.2 Senior Seminaries 216 9 5.3.3 Women Indigenous Religious Congregations 217 5.3.4 Men Indigenous Congregations 219 5.3.5 Monasticism 220 5.4 The Laity and the Growth of the Church in Igbo Land 221 5.5 New Challenges and Problems Facing Christianity in Igbo Land ....224 5.5.1 Socio-cultural Crisis 225 5.5.2 Ancestral/ Spiritual Problems 228 5.5.3 Socio-cultural Problems 230 5.5.3.1 Marrying an Out Cast (Osu) 230 5.5.3.2 Marriage Problems 231 5.5.3.3 Funeral Rites and Burial 234 5.5.3.4 Oath-Taking and Covenant-Making 234 5.5.3.5 Magic, Witchcraft and Fetishism 234 5.5.3.6 The Resurgence of Divination and Traditional Medicine 235 5.5.3.7 Masquerades (Mmuo or Mmanwu) 237 5.5.3.8 Continued Respect for Socio-cultural Prohibitions 237 5.6 Proliferation of Churches and Ministries 237 5.7 Enslavement in the Name of God 243 5.8 Prosperity and Security Gospel 244 5.9 Family Ministries/Deliverance 246 5.10 Devil Mania 249 5.11 Madness in the use Sacramentals: Syncretism and Neo-paganism...250 5.12 Youth Involvement in Cults and Occultism 253 5.13 Secularism and Secularization 255 5.14 Anti-clericalism 259 5.15 Conclusion 260 6 MODELS OF INCULTURATION 263 6.