University of Alberta Radiation, Researchers, and the United States Atomic Energy Commission: Biomedical Research from the Early Twentieth Century to the Early Cold War by Katherine Jane Zwicker A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History Department of History & Classics ©Katherine Jane Zwicker Spring 2012 Edmonton, Alberta Permission is hereby granted to the University of Alberta Libraries to reproduce single copies of this thesis and to lend or sell such copies for private, scholarly or scientific research purposes only. Where the thesis is converted to, or otherwise made available in digital form, the University of Alberta will advise potential users of the thesis of these terms. 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Canada ABSTRACT On the 6th and 9th of August 1945 the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Both cities were utterly devastated, in part, due to the sheer blast produced by the bombs, but also due to the radioactive fallout that contaminated each region. Biomedical radiation researchers from around the world studied the resulting radiation sickncss that affected atomic bomb survivors. The work of American biomedical researchers marked a distinct phase in the history of biomedical radiation research in the United States, because researchers had never before been able to study the biological effects of radiation exposure amongst such a large group of individuals. Also, American researchers' investigation of bomb survivors was the first of many postwar initiatives of the federal government to fund biomedical radiation research. This was, however, one chapter in a longer history that began at the turn of the twentieth century. This dissertation examines the development of biomedical radiation research in the United States from the early twentieth century to the early Cold War period. It focuses on three salient and closely related aspects of the field: the practice of interdisciplinary collaboration and creation of hybrid expertise; the development of an influential network of biomedical radiation researchers; and the role of researchers in helping to define and respond to changing social and political priorities within the United States. It argues that the primary reason biomedical radiation research flourished throughout the century was that researchers were socially and politically responsive. They were attentive to changing social and political circumstances and promoted their research accordingly. Throughout the century they promised that their work would advance medicine, especially the diagnosis and treatment of cancer. During World War II and later, they also accepted responsibility for investigating the hazards associated with nuclear weapons development and atomic warfare. By doing so, researchers were able to secure sufficient and, at times, abundant resources to investigate the application of radiation in biology and medicine. The pursuit of this research within a large government-funded research enterprise blurred the lines between civilian and military spheres and helped characterize the Cold War. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I want to sincerely thank my supervisor, Robert Smith, for his wonderful guidance during my graduate studies. There were, of course, moments throughout writing this dissertation, at which I could not see an end in sight. On many occasions, Robert reminded me that I would not know what 1 was writing, until I got it on the page. Perhaps a simple reassurance, but one I valued greatly. From Robert I have learned so much about the process of research and writing that I will continually draw on throughout my career. I have been very fortunate to have found, not one excellent mentor, but two. I owe a great deal of thanks to Susan Smith for her considerable investment in my professional development. Over the years, Susan has been generous with her time and advice and has really helped nurture my confidence as an academic. Many of my colleagues at the University of Alberta deserve recognition. David Marples, for instance, has been a constant support throughout my studies and, at one time, a great teammate on the soccer field. 1 have very much enjoyed being a part of the History & Classics Department, as well as the history of science and medicine communities on campus. For helping to foster these communities, thanks to Lesley Cormack, Ken Moure, Pat Prestwich, and Andrew Ede. Roberta Lexier, Melanie Niemi-Bohun, Sharon Romeo, Robyn Braun, Jaymie Heilman—thank you all for making work a bit more fun! As for family and friends, I suspect my words will fail me in trying to express my gratitude to you all for your love and support over the years. To my Edmonton, Wolfville, and Lunenburg friends, I will take you with me, wherever I go. To my ever-growing and absolutely wonderful family—well, 1 know I am one of the lucky ones to have each of you by my side. Dad, you are my rock; Mom, my memories of you are a constant inspiration; Meredith and Phil, to me you will always be older and so much wiser and I will look to you to show me the way. Amy, I can hardly believe that there was ever a time when we wanted to go our separate ways. Through the hills and the valleys, we will walk in the best company. TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction 1 Chapter 1 - X-Rays, Radium, and the Early Twentieth-Century Development of Interdisciplinary Collaboration 27 Chapter 2 - Biomedicine and Bombs: Health and Safety in the Manhattan Project 74 Chapter 3 - From War to Peace: Institutionalizing Biomedical Radiation Research within the Atomic Energy Commission 132 Chapter 4 - The Building Blocks of Research: Radioisotopes Distribution 179 Chapter 5 - The ABC's of the AEC's Biomedical Research: Fellowships and Educational Initiatives 215 Chapter 6 - Waging War on Another Front: The AEC Joins the Cancer Establishment 263 Conclusion 292 Bibliography 307 LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Radioisotope Distribution to Non-AEC Institutions Table 2: Diagnostic & Therapeutic Uses of Radioisotopes, 1949 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: AEC Organization Chart, December 1948 Figure 2: ORINS Organizational Chart, September 1949 ABBREVIATIONS & TERMS ACXRP - Advisory Committee on X-ray and Radium Protection, established in 1928. ABCC - Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission, established in 1947. AEC - Atomic Energy Commission, established 1 January 1947. ACBM - Advisory Committee on Biology and Medicine, established in September 1947 within the AEC. ACS - American Cancer Society, established in 1913 as the American Society for the Control of Cancer. The organization adopted its current name in 1945. ARRS - American Roentgen Ray Society, established in 1900. ARS - American Radium Society, established in 1916. AUI - Associated Universities, Inc., consortium of universities, established in 1946. BNL - Brookhaven National Laboratory, established in 1947. C-14- carbon-14. CWS - Chemical Warfare Service, established in 1918. DBM - Division of Biology and Medicine, established in October 1947 within the AEC. FBI - Federal Bureau of Investigation, established in 1908. H-3 - hydrogen-3. ICXRP - International Committee on X-Ray and Radium Protection, established in 1928. Interim Medical Advisory Committee - formed in January 1947 by the AEC to advise on the future of biomedical research within the AEC. JCAE - Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, congressional oversight committee of the AEC, established in 1947. MED - Manhattan Engineer District, established in the summer of 1942 within the Army Corps of Engineers for the development of the atomic bomb during World War II. The MED transferred authority over the nation's nuclear weapons complex to the Atomic Energy Commission as of 1 January 1947, and the MED officially ceased to exist 15 August 1947. Medical Advisory Committee - formed by the MED in September 1946 to assess the legacy of the MED's health and safety work and advise on future activities.