Senate Sénat CANADA CANNABIS : OUR POSITION FOR A CANADIAN PUBLIC POLICY REPORT OF THE SENATE SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON ILLEGAL DRUGS VOLUME II : PART III CHAIRMAN DEPUTY CHAIRMAN PIERRE CLAUDE NOLIN COLIN KENNY SEPTEMBER 2002 REPORT OF THE SENATE SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON ILLEGAL DRUGS: CANNABIS TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 1 PART I - GENERAL ORIENTATION 5 CHAPTER 1 - OUR MANDATE 7 WORDING 7 ORIGINS 9 INTERPRETATION 10 CHAPTER 2 - OUR WORK 13 TWO WORKING PRINCIPLES 14 STATE OF KNOWLEDGE 15 Research Program 18 Expert Witnesses 19 The Challenge of Synthesis 21 TAKING OPINIONS INTO ACCOUNT 22 INTERPRETING IN LIGHT OF PRINCIPLES 23 CHAPTER 3 - OUR GUIDING PRINCIPLES 25 ETHICS, OR THE PRINCIPLE OF RECIPROCAL AUTONOMY 28 GOVERNANCE: MAXIMIZING THE ACTIONS OF INDIVIDUALS 32 Collective governance 34 Governance of the self 35 The role of governance 37 CRIMINAL LAW AND THE LIMITS OF PROHIBITION 38 Requirement for distinctions 38 Criteria for distinction 40 Application to illegal drugs issues 44 SCIENCE OR APPROXIMATE KNOWLEDGE 45 CONCLUSIONS 49 CHAPTER 4 - A CHANGING CONTEXT 51 CHANGES IN THE INTERNATIONAL SPHERE 51 Globalization and Integration 51 Difficulties of the Security Debate 55 From Anti-Drug Policies to Drug Policies 57 CHANGES IN CANADA 58 Judicial Activism 58 A National Crime Prevention Strategy 59 The Fight Against Organized Crime 59 A SOCIETAL DEBATE 60 - i - REPORT OF THE SENATE SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON ILLEGAL DRUGS: CANNABIS PART II - CANNABIS: EFFECTS, TYPES OF USE, ATTITUDES 63 CHAPTER 5 - CANNABIS : FROM PLANT TO JOINT 65 ONE PLANT, VARIOUS DRUGS 66 CANNABIS ROADS 69 PROPERTIES OF CANNABIS 77 D9THC Concentrations 78 Pharmacokinetics 83 CONCLUSIONS 87 CHAPTER 6 - USERS AND USES : FORM, PRACTICE, CONTEXT 89 PATTERNS OF USE 90 Consumption by the population as a whole 91 Consumption among young people 94 Use patterns in other countries 101 To summarize 108 PATTERNS AND CIRCUMSTANCES OF USE 111 Cannabis in History 111 Trajectories of Use 113 Factors Related to Use 119 To summarize 124 STEPPING STONE TOWARDS OTHER DRUGS? 125 CANNABIS, VIOLENCE AND CRIME 127 CONCLUSIONS 128 CHAPTER 7 - CANNABIS : EFFECTS AND CONSEQUENCES 131 EFFECTS AND CONSEQUENCES OF CANNABIS: WHAT WE WERE TOLD 134 ACUTE EFFECTS OF CANNABIS 139 CONSEQUENCES OF CHRONIC USE 143 Physiological Consequences of Chronic Use 143 Cognitive and Psychological Consequences 148 Behavioural and Social Consequences 152 TOLERANCE AND DEPENDENCE 152 Cannabis Dependence 154 Severity of Dependence 160 Tolerance 162 To summarize 163 CONCLUSIONS 164 CHAPTER 8 - DRIVING UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF CANNABIS 167 FORMS OF TESTING 170 EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DATA 175 Studies not involving accidents 175 Studies where an accident was involved 176 Epidemiological studies on youth 179 - ii - REPORT OF THE SENATE SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON ILLEGAL DRUGS: CANNABIS Risk assessment 180 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES 182 Non-driving activities 183 While driving 184 CONCLUSIONS 188 CHAPTER 9 - USE OF MARIJUANA FOR THERAPEUTIC PURPOSES 191 HISTORY 196 CONTEMPORARY KNOWLEDGE 197 Therapeutic uses 198 Marijuana as a drug? 200 CURRENT THERAPEUTIC PRACTICES 203 CONCLUSIONS 205 CHAPTER 10 - CANADIANS’ OPINIONS AND ATTITUDES 209 THE MEDIA 210 SURVEYS 215 ATTITUDES AND OPINIONS SHARED WITH THE COMMITTEE 221 CONCLUSIONS 224 PART III - POLICIES AND PRACTICES IN CANADA 225 CHAPTER 11 - A NATIONAL DRUG STRATEGY? 227 PHASE I - DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION 228 Creation of the Canadian Centre on Substance Abuse 233 Creation of Canada’s Drug Strategy Secretariat 236 PHASE II - RENEWAL 237 PHASE III – RENEWAL WITHOUT SPECIFIED FUNDING 240 CANADA’S DRUG STRATEGY – A SUCCESS? 241 CONCLUSIONS 243 CHAPTER 12 - THE NATIONAL LEGISLATIVE CONTEXT 245 1908-1960: HYSTERIA 248 Opium Act, 1908 252 The Opium and Narcotic Drug Act, 1911 253 Amendme nts to the Opium and Narcotic Drug Act (1920-1938) 255 Amendments to the Act to Amend the Opium and Narcotic Drug Act in 1954 263 Senate Report of 1955 264 FROM 1960 TO THE LE DAIN COMMISSION: THE SEARCH FOR REASONS 268 Narcotic Control Act (1961) 268 An Act respecting Food and Drugs and Barbiturates (1961) 270 The Le Dain Commission (1969-1973) 272 Bill S-19 and Cannabis 283 AFTER LE DAIN: FORGING AHEAD REGARDLESS 284 Controlled Drugs and Substances Act 286 CONCLUSIONS 295 - iii - REPORT OF THE SENATE SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON ILLEGAL DRUGS: CANNABIS CHAPTER 13 - REGULATING THERAPEUTIC USE OF CANNABIS 297 BACKGROUND TO THE RECENT REGULATIONS 298 Section 56 – Controlled Drugs and Substances Act 298 Charter Challenges – Therapeutic Use of Marijuana 299 Government Reaction 302 MARIHUANA MEDICAL ACCESS REGULATIONS 302 Authorization to Possess 303 Licence to Produce 306 Other Provisions 307 COMPASSIONATE ACCESS? 308 Eligibility 309 Access to cannabis 312 Products 316 Costs 316 RESEARCH PLAN 317 Scientific Research 318 Research-Grade Marijuana 320 CONCLUSIONS 321 CHAPTER 14 - POLICE PRACTICES 323 ENFORCEMENT AGENCIES 323 RCMP 323 CHARGES UNDER THE CONTROLLED DRUGS AND SUBSTANCES ACT IN 1999 326 TheCanada Customs and Revenue Agency 326 Provincial and Municipal Police 328 COSTS 328 POLICE POWERS 333 Searches and Seizures 335 Entrapment and Illegal Activity 347 Conclusion 352 STATISTICS 353 Reported Incidents 353 Charges 356 Concerns 359 Customs Act - Fines 361 SEIZURES 362 CONCLUSIONS 364 CHAPTER 15 - THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM 367 PROSECUTION 367 COURTS 368 Drug Treatment Courts 369 DISPOSITION AND SENTENCING 372 CORRECTIONS 376 CRIMINAL RECORD 379 COURT CHALLENGES 382 CONCLUSIONS 387 - iv - REPORT OF THE SENATE SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON ILLEGAL DRUGS: CANNABIS CHAPTER 16 - PREVENTION 389 INITIATIVES THAT FALL SHORT OF THE MARK 393 Not enough prevention 394 Prevention lacks focus 396 There is not enough evaluation of preventive measures 397 Preventive and social messages in contradiction 398 There is a body of knowledge on which we have to draw 399 PREVENTING WHAT AND HOW? 400 RISK REDUCTION AND HARM REDUCTION 410 CONCLUSIONS 412 CHAPTER 17 - TREATMENT PRACTICES 415 CANNABIS DEPENDENCY 415 FORMS OF TREATMENT 421 EFFECTIVENESS OF TREATMENT 423 CONCLUSIONS 426 CHAPTER 18 - OBSERVATIONS ON PRACTICES 427 DIFFICULTIES IN HARMONIZING THE PLAYERS 427 INCONGRUITIES OF APPROACH 429 SIGNIFICANT ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COSTS 431 PART IV - PUBLIC POLICY OPTIONS 437 CHAPTER 19 - THE INTERNATIONAL LEGAL ENVIRONMENT 439 A GENEALOGY 440 The 1909 Shanghai Conference 443 The 1912 Hague International Opium Convention 444 The 1925 Geneva Opium Conventions 446 The 1931 Geneva Narcotics Manufacturing and Distribution Limitation Convention / 1931 Bangkok Opium Smoking Agreement 447 The 1936 Geneva Convention for the Suppression of the Illicit Traffic in Dangerous Drugs 448 The Second World War 449 The 1946 Lake Success Protocol 449 The 1948 Paris Protocol 450 The 1953 New York Opium Protocol 450 THE THREE CURRENT CONVENTIONS 451 The Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961 451 Convention on Psychotropic Substances 455 Protocol amending the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961 460 Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances 462 SOME LEEWAY? 464 CONCLUSIONS 468 - v - REPORT OF THE SENATE SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON ILLEGAL DRUGS: CANNABIS CHAPTER 20 - PUBLIC POLICIES IN OTHER COUNTRIES 469 FRANCE 470 Different Forms of Logic 470 An Integrated Public Policy 472 Legislative Framework 474 Key Reports 477 Statistics on Use and Offences 481 Costs 483 THE NETHERLANDS 485 Dutch Pragmatism? 486 Essential Experts Reports 488 Legislation 493 The Coffee Shop System 496 Data on Use 498 UNITED KINGDOM 502 Ten-Year Strategy to Battle Drugs 502 Legislative Framework 503 Other Relevant Legislation in the Field of Drug Misuse 505 Debate in the UK 506 Recent Key Reports and Studies 507 Administration 515 Costs 515 Statistics 516 SWEDEN 518 National Strategy 520 Legislative Framework 523 Debate in Sweden 525 Recent Reports 526 Costs 528 Administration 528 Statistics 529 SWITZERLAND 531 A Harm Reduction Policy 531 The Legal Framework 538 A Bill to Decriminalize Cannabis 539 Administration of Swiss Drug Policy 542 Statistics on Narcotics Use and Offences under the Narcotics Act 544 AUSTRALIA 546 National Drug Strategy 546 Legislative Framework 551 Decriminilization in Australia 554 Administration 556 Statistics 557 UNITED STATES 560 The Federal-State Legislative Framework 560 Current Legislation and Enforcement 563 Federal Drug Policy Goals and Objectives 570 Administration of the Policy 572 Current Issues and Debates 575 - vi - REPORT OF THE SENATE SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON ILLEGAL DRUGS: CANNABIS Statistics 576 CHAPTER 21 - PUBLIC POLICY OPTIONS 581 INEFFECTIVENESS OF CRIMINAL POLICIES 583 Impact on Consumption 583 Impact on Supply 589 Conclusion 590 GENERAL ECONOMY OF A PUBLIC POLICY ON CANNABIS 591 COMPONENTS OF A PUBLIC POLICY 593 Strong Decision-making Body 593 Interconnection 594 A Shared Definition of Shared Objectives 594 Information Tools 594 LEGISLATIVE OPTIONS 595 Clarification of criminology 595 Criteria for a Legal Policy on Cannabis 602 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 607 LE DAIN – ALREADY THIRTY YEARS AGO 607 INEFFECTIVENESS OF THE CURRENT APPROACH 609 PUBLIC POLICY BASED ON GUIDING PRINCIPLES 610 A CLEAR AND COHERENT FEDERAL STRATEGY 611 NATIONAL STRATEGY SUSTAINED BY ADEQUATE RESOURCES AND TOOLS 612 A PUBLIC HEALTH POLICY 614 A REGULATORY APPROACH TO CANNABIS 617 A COMPASSION-BASED APPROACH FOR THERAPEUTIC USE 618 PROVISIONS FOR OPERATING A VEHICLE UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF CANNABIS 619 RESEARCH 620 CANADA’S INTERNATIONAL POSITION 621 PROPOSALS FOR IMPLEM ENTING THE REGULATION OF CANNABIS FOR THERAPEUTIC AND RECREATIONAL PURPOSES