Mackay Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan U.S. Department of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service Southeast Region November 2008 COMPREHENSIVE CONSERVATION PLAN MACKAY ISLAND NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE Currituck County, North Carolina Virginia Beach, Virginia U.S. Department of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service Southeast Region Atlanta, Georgia November 2008 TABLE OF CONTENTS COMPREHENSIVE CONSERVATION PLAN EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ....................................................................................................................... 1 I. BACKGROUND .................................................................................................................................. 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1 Purpose and Need for the Plan .................................................................................................... 1 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service ...................................................................................................... 2 National Wildlife Refuge System .................................................................................................. 2 Refuges of the Ecosystem ............................................................................................................3 Legal Policy Context ..................................................................................................................... 4 National Conservation Plans and Initiatives .................................................................................4 Relationship to State Partners ...................................................................................................... 4 II. REFUGE OVERVIEW ........................................................................................................................ 7 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 7 Refuge History and Purposes .......................................................................................................7 Special Designations .................................................................................................................... 9 Ecosystem Context ..................................................................................................................... 10 Regional Conservation Plans and Initiatives ..............................................................................10 Ecological Threats and Problems ............................................................................................... 12 Habitat Loss and Fragmentation .......................................................................................12 Alterations to Hydrology ....................................................................................................14 Siltation of Aquatic Ecosystems ........................................................................................14 Proliferation of Invasive Aquatic Plants .............................................................................14 Conservation Priorities ......................................................................................................15 Physical Environment ................................................................................................................. 16 Climate .............................................................................................................................. 16 Geology ............................................................................................................................. 17 Minerals .............................................................................................................................17 Soils .................................................................................................................................. 17 Hydrology .......................................................................................................................... 20 Water Quality .................................................................................................................... 20 Air Quality ..........................................................................................................................21 Visual Resources .............................................................................................................. 22 Biological Environment ............................................................................................................... 22 Habitat ............................................................................................................................... 22 Wildlife ............................................................................................................................... 24 Insects and Diseases ........................................................................................................30 Exotic Organisms .............................................................................................................. 31 Threatened and Endangered Species ..............................................................................31 Cultural Resources ..................................................................................................................... 31 Socioeconomic Environment ...................................................................................................... 31 Socioeconomic Conditions and Land Use ........................................................................31 History of the Area ............................................................................................................ 32 Land Use ........................................................................................................................... 34 Demographics ................................................................................................................... 35 Employment ...................................................................................................................... 38 Table of Contents i Forestry ............................................................................................................................. 38 Outdoor Recreation .......................................................................................................... 40 Outdoor Recreation Economics ........................................................................................ 40 Tourism ............................................................................................................................. 41 Transportation ................................................................................................................... 41 Cultural Environment ........................................................................................................ 42 Refuge Administration and Management ................................................................................... 42 Land Protection and Conservation ................................................................................... 42 Visitor Services ................................................................................................................. 44 Personnel, Operations and Maintenance ......................................................................... 44 Refuge Infrastructure ................................................................................................................. 46 Roads and Trails ............................................................................................................... 46 Utility Corridors and Distribution ....................................................................................... 46 Communication System .................................................................................................... 47 Solid Waste Collection and Disposal ................................................................................ 47 III. PLAN DEVELOPMENT .................................................................................................................. 49 Public Involvement and the Planning Process ........................................................................... 49 Plan Review and Revision .......................................................................................................... 50 Summary of Issues and Concerns ............................................................................................. 50 Hydrology .......................................................................................................................... 50 Global Warming and Sea Level Rise ................................................................................ 50 Fish and Wildlife Populations ............................................................................................ 51 Habitats ............................................................................................................................. 52 Public Use ......................................................................................................................... 52 Resource Protection ......................................................................................................... 53 Wilderness