RICE UNIVERSITY Southern Liberalism and Its Limits: Religion, Race, and Appalachian Reform in the Life of Willis Duke Weatherford, 1875-1970 by Andrew McNeill Canady A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE Doctor of Philosophy APPROVED, THESIS COMMITTEE: Boles, Chair P. Hobby Professor of History ~iChaclO:Emerson, Allyn R. and Gladys M. Cline Professor of Sociology HOUSTON, TEXAS MAY 2011 ABSTRACT Southern Liberalism and Its Limits: Religion, Race, and Appalachian Reform in the Life of Willis Duke Weatherford, 1875-1970 by Andrew McNeill Canady My dissertation is a contextual biography of a white southern liberal. W. D. Weatherford lived from 1875 to 1970 and played a key role in many of the significant social and political issues of the day, namely race relations, education, religion, and Appalachian reform. He was a pioneer in interracial work in the U. S. South who became involved in 1908 and stayed active in the field through the 1960s. Weatherford also was one of the central figures in the YMCA from 1900 to 1945, a time when this institution wielded strong influence on communities and college campuses in this region and across the country. In the last twenty-five years of his life he primarily addressed Appalachian poverty and this region's religious life. In the field of southern religious history my study complements other scholarship that contends that a social gospel tradition did not exist in the South. This religious movement appeared in the northern United States in the late nineteenth century, providing a theological critique of social structures in light of new conditions brought on by the urban-industrial revolution. Recently, scholars have questioned to what extent this phenomenon penetrated the South. I argue that Weatherford's activities, while representing a form of socially engaged Christianity, were not a manifestation of that particular movement. For the greater part of his life he never challenged Jim Crow segregation, the structure underlying racism in the United States, nor did he seriously question the capitalist economy that contributed to the poverty of African Americans and those of Appalachia. In general, he steered clear of politics, concentrating his efforts on the power of education to change the perceptions of people and bring gradual improvement in society. Weatherford's limitations were also shared with most other white southern progressives of his era, making an analysis of his life an excellent way of illuminating the limits of southern liberalism in general. In particular, I argue Weatherford's southern background, the financial constraints he faced as director of several institutions, the climate of white supremacy in the South, and his religious focus limited how far he pushed for social justice. Acknowledgements A dissertation is not the product of only one person's efforts. Throughout graduate school and the process of completing my project I have accumulated numerous debts. To begin with, I would like to thank the Rice History Department for its generous funding, which including a tuition waiver, stipend, and research monies that made this work possible. An Archie K. Davis Fellowship from the North Caroliniana Society also provided financial support for my work. Portions of this dissertation appeared in another form in the North Carolina Historical Review and were also presented for a panel at the 2010 Southern Historical Association's annual meeting. I would like to thank the anonymous reviewers and Anne Miller at the NCHR as well as Bill Link, Tracy K'Meyer, and the panel audience for their insightful comments and suggestions. At Rice I would like to thank Ed Cox, Allen Matusow, Martin Wiener, Carol Quillen, Allison Sneider, Rebecca Goetz, Lora Wildenthal, and Paula Sanders for their help in one form or another throughout graduate school. I am particularly appreciative to Thomas Haskell for his aid in helping me hone my writing, as well as to Alex Byrd and Michael Emerson for serving on my dissertation committee. The staff in the History Department and the Journal ofSouthern History have also helped me through my time at Rice, particularly in light of my absence from Houston over the past years while completing my research and writing. Thanks are extended to Pat Burgess, Paula Platt, Rachel Zepeda, Lisa Tate, and Anita Smith for all of their assistance. v My graduate colleagues at Rice also aided me along the way. In particular, Luke Harlow and Rusty Hawkins were good friends to me throughout this process and continue to be. Joseph Abel, Jessica Cannon, Chris Davis, Robin Sager, Merritt McKinney, Andy Lang, Blake Ellis, Marty Wauck, Greg Eow, Alyssa Honnette, Wes Phelps, Jim Wainwright, and Allison Madar also were important and supportive through these years. Special thanks is due as well to Randal Hall, managing editor of the Journal ofSouthern History, whose seemingly inexhaustible knowledge has been a constant resource throughout my years at Rice. Numerous visits to his office, countless phone conversations, and his willingness to read portions of my work all helped me as I hit snags along the way and in bringing my overall project together. My advisor, John Boles, deserves particular recognition. Without a doubt, it was one of my best decisions to attend graduate school at Rice and be one of his students. His prompt replies to my questions and critiques of my written work, along with his encouragement, support, and common sense advice all have been invaluable. Beyond his professionalism, he is above all a fine human being with whom it is a pleasure to work. I also truly appreciate his sense of understanding and his value of family. In particular, during a time when I needed to be with my own family, he without hesitation supported my decision. At another point, when it seemed wise to leave Houston to conduct my research and writing, he was equally supportive. Other scholars away from Rice were also important in helping me conceptualize my project and construct my arguments. Michele Gillespie has been my constant supporter since I attended Wake Forest as an undergraduate. She has always been willing to read drafts of my project, correspond via email, or meet to talk over various concerns, vi provide professional advice, and write letters of recommendation. I truly appreciate her as both the fme scholar and person she is. Charles Israel also shared his knowledge and interest in early-twentieth-century southern religion and took time to talk in person and reply to my inquiries. Special thanks also must go to Samuel S. Hill. From my start in graduate school Sam has been an unfailing supporter and advocate. Indeed, it was his idea originally to undertake the Weatherford project, and for this suggestion as well as countless meals, conversations, and tours throughout Black Mountain lowe him many thanks. Discussions along the way with Jim Barefield, Mac Bryan, and Donald Mathews also proved helpful. In the process of my research I had the good fortune to visit with several people who knew Weatherford personally. Thanks go out in particular to Loyal Jones and Billy Edd Wheeler. The Weatherford family has also been very supportive of my research and allowed me both access to personal family documents as well as wonderful hospitality on several occasions. Anne Weatherford consistently made herself and Far Horizons available for my research. Her kindness and openness of mind made these interactions both fruitful and enjoyable. I also appreciate the generosity of Elizabeth Culbreth and John Vanderstar, who opened their beautiful mountain home to me for a research trip, providing me access to materials relating to Weatherford's first wife and her family. Nancy Kester Neale also shared memories of Weatherford and made available documents relating to her father, Howard Kester, which aided in my research. I would also like to express my gratitude to the numerous people who assisted me in the archives. First and foremost lowe a great debt to the staff of the Southern Historical Collection at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. For vii approximately eight months I conducted research there, plodding my way through the fifty boxes of Weatherford's Papers, and various other collections. Laura Brown and Matt Turi in particular were gracious with their time and encouragement during this period and subsequent visits. Becca Soloman, Lauren Hurley, Holly Smith, Biff Hollingsworth, Rachel Canada and others were also helpful, all making my work at Chapel Hill productive and enjoyable. For briefer periods I also went to the archives at Fisk University, Berea College, Vanderbilt University, and the YMCA Blue Ridge Assembly. Special thanks to Beth Howse at Fisk for her assistance while I was in Nashville and for her help with follow-up requests. The staffs at the Kautz Family YMCA Archives at the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, the Amistad Collection at Tulane University, and the Weatherford Public Library in Weatherford, Texas also were accommodating to my inquiries, copying and mailing documents pertaining to my project. Finally, this project would not have been possible without the support I received from my family and friends over the past years. In particular I would like to thank Sam Walton and Gary Cagle. I am also grateful for the constant encouragement I received from my parents, David and Jeanne Canady. It is hard for me to imagine better or more supportive parents. They have continually been at my side as I made my way through graduate school. Thus, this dissertation is dedicated in their honor. It also dedicated to the memory of my brother, Richard Canady, who helped me move to Houston to begin graduate work but never lived to see the completion of my project. Table of Contents Introduction ......................... 1 Chapter I-The Making of a Southern Liberal: From Weatherford, Texas, to Nashville, Tennessee, 1875-1907 ...........