Animal Welfare Regulation in the Australian Agricultural Sector: A Legitimacy Maximising Analysis Jed Goodfellow LLB/BA (Hons), GDLP Macquarie Law School Macquarie University This thesis is presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Law September 2015 In dedication to each of the 605 million sentient beings used for food and fibre in Australia every year, and to the people who wish to represent their interests. Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................... v Statement of Candidate .......................................................................................................... vi Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................. vii List of Tables and Figures ..................................................................................................... ix PART I - Setting the Regulatory Scene Chapter 1: Introduction ........................................................................................... 3 1.1 Background to research problem ....................................................................... 3 1.2 Research objectives and questions ..................................................................... 7 1.3 Methodology: the legitimacy and regulatory analytical framework .................. 8 1.3.1 Legitimacy theory ........................................................................................ 9 1.3.2 Input legitimacy ......................................................................................... 10 1.3.3 Output legitimacy ...................................................................................... 12 1.3.4 Empirical research ..................................................................................... 13 1.3.5 Law reform proposals ................................................................................ 14 1.4 Significance of research ................................................................................... 14 1.5 Scope, limitations, and strategic and normative underpinnings of the thesis .. 23 1.6 Structure of thesis ............................................................................................. 25 Chapter 2: The Nature of the Regulatory Problem – Industrial Livestock Production and Animal Welfare ................. 28 2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 28 2.2 The development of industrialised animal farming ......................................... 29 2.3 The conflict between animal welfare and industry productivity ...................... 38 2.3.1 Scientific definitions of animal welfare .................................................... 39 2.3.2 The influence of market forces .................................................................. 44 2.4 Examples of the conflict ................................................................................... 48 2.4.1 Confinement and stocking densities .......................................................... 48 2.4.2 Invasive husbandry procedures ................................................................. 54 2.4.3 Genetic alteration ....................................................................................... 58 2.4.4 Long distance transportation ..................................................................... 60 2.5 Conclusion........................................................................................................ 62 i Chapter 3: The Nature of the Regulatory Problem II – The Social and Political Context: A Clash of Values ................................. 64 3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 64 3.2 Social and economic drivers of evolving public attitudes to animals and implications for livestock industries .................................................................... 66 3.3 The animal protection community .......................................................................... 73 3.4 The livestock industries ........................................................................................... 80 3.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 88 Chapter 4: The Current Regulatory Framework ............................. 90 4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 90 4.2 The Australian Constitution .................................................................................... 91 4.3 Australian Animal Welfare Strategy ...................................................................... 93 4.3.1 Ethical underpinnings ................................................................................ 94 4.3.2 Goals and objectives .................................................................................. 95 4.3.3 Governance and implementation ............................................................... 96 4.3.4 The 2009 Gemmell Review ....................................................................... 97 4.3.5 Withdrawal of Commonwealth support ................................................... 102 4.4 State animal welfare legislation ............................................................................ 102 4.4.1 Historical development ............................................................................ 103 4.4.2 Modern day Animal Welfare Acts ........................................................... 105 4.4.3 Prohibition on cruelty: unnecessary harm and the proportionality test ... 106 4.4.4 The promotion of welfare and the duty of care ........................................ 115 4.4.5 Exemptions and defences ......................................................................... 120 4.5 Codes of Practice .................................................................................................... 124 4.5.1 Legal status and relationship to principal legislation ............................... 125 4.5.2 The Code conversion process .................................................................. 126 4.6 Regulation of the live animal export trade .......................................................... 128 4.6.1 Australian Meat and Livestock Industry Act 1997 (Cth) ......................... 129 4.6.2 Export Control Act 1982 (Cth) ................................................................ 132 4.7 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 134 Chapter 5: Overview of Regulatory Failings ...................................... 136 5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 136 5.2 Inadequate animal welfare standards ................................................................... 138 5.2.1 Popular normative conceptions ................................................................ 138 ii 5.2.2 International comparators ........................................................................ 141 5.2.3 Legislative mandates ............................................................................... 142 5.3 Prevalence of significant animal welfare incidents ............................................ 143 5.4 Diminishing public trust and confidence ............................................................. 146 5.4.1 Public attitudes towards farming ............................................................. 146 5.4.2 Increasing prevalence and legitimacy of direct action ............................ 147 5.4.3 Increasing adversarialism between stakeholders and government .......... 152 5.4.4 Rise of alternative animal product technologies...................................... 153 5.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 155 PART 2 - Investigation and Critique Chapter 6: Regulators, Agency Design, and Regulatory Capture .............................................................................................................................. 160 6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 160 6.2 Regulatory capture theory .............................................................................. 162 6.2.1 Poor agency design .................................................................................. 169 6.2.2 Cultural capture and the agricultural policy community ......................... 170 6.2.3 The ‘public interest’................................................................................. 174 6.3 Interviews with regulators .............................................................................. 176 6.4 Data analysis .................................................................................................. 180 6.4.1 Agency design and structural incentives ................................................. 186 6.4.2 Conception of key stakeholders ............................................................... 194 6.4.3 Conception of animal welfare.................................................................. 197 6.4.4 Approach to animal welfare regulation ..................................................