ASSESSING THE ROLE OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AND GOVERNANCE IN CONSERVATION AREAS IN KENYA MARGARET WACHU GICHUHI DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Environmental Management) JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY 2015 0 Assessing the Role of Wildlife Management and Governance in Conservation Areas in Kenya Margaret Wachu Gichuhi A Thesis submitted in fulfillment for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Environmental Management in the Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology 2015 1 ii DEDICATION This research is dedicated to my parents the late Hezron Kihoro Kuria and Hannah Wambui Kihoro for believing in empowering their children with education. To Elvis Gichuhi, may God fulfill your purpose in this world, Juliet Wambui, Nelly Wambui, Lynette Wanjiru and Chelsea Njeri may you all attain the best in life. To the Environment, “Who has access to environmental resources and who benefits, who bears the cost of environmental depletion and degradation, what is the impact of resource depletion on the economy and livelihoods, and where could we restore ecosystems and create economic opportunities among others” (UNEP, 2009). iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am most grateful to my supervisors; Prof. Joseph Keriko and Dr. John Bosco Mukundi for their insightful and dedicated assistance and contribution to the completion of this research. I appreciate my research assistants in the five conservation areas; Sarah Mwikali Mukula, Pity Darvin of Nanyuki and Evelyn Silali of Lake Nakuru National Park. The following personnel were of great assistance with the relevant information; Stephen Nyaori (Malewa Conservancy), Charles Muthui (Soysambu Conservancy), Paul Leringato (Ol Pejeta Conservancy) and Kuntai Karmushu (Il Ngwesi conservancy). Others were Ali (Mwalughanje Elephant Sanctuary), Dr. Ndere and Martha Nziza (Tsavo East National Park), Mr. Ngonze (Kimana Conservancy), Dr. John Kiringe (School of Field Studies, SFS), Kimana, Rob Dodson and Laurian Lenjo (Rukinga Wildlife Sanctuary), Dr. M. Kihoro, (JKUAT), Charles Muriuki (GEGIS, JKUAT), Lawrence Okello (Regional Centre for Mapping of Resources and Development, RCMRD), Jerome M. Mwanzia (Kenya Forestry Service, KFS) and Eliud Kulecho (Kenya Polytechnic University College). I also acknowledge the valuable input into this Thesis by Dr. Ursula Osteneck and David Aaron Halstead (Saskatchewan Institute of Applied Science and Technology SIAST, Canada). Special thanks to my immediate family, my brother Paul, sisters Mary and Alice, and relatives who prayed with me to overcome all obstacles and to make this research a success. I do recognize all friends, colleagues and professionals who assisted and gave moral support in data collection, analysis and compilation. Last but not least, I give glory to God Almighty for seeing me through and for making it happen. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION................................................................................................................. ii DEDICATION…………………………………………………………………………….iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………………………………………………………………iv TABLE OF CONTENTS…………………………………………………………………v LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. ix LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................ x LIST OF PLATES ........................................................................................................... xiii APPENDICES .................................................................................................................. xiv ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ......................................................................... xv ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………….xvii CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................. 1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................... 1 1.1 General Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Conservation Management for Wildlife Conservation Areas ......................................... 3 1.3 Community Perception on Conservation Areas .............................................................. 3 1.4 Assessing the State of Resources in Wildlife Conservation Areas Using Geographical Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RS) ............................................................................. 3 1.5 Statement of the Problem ................................................................................................ 4 1.6 Rationale and Justification………………………………………………………….…..5 1.7 Conceptual Framework for Wildlife Conservation Areas .............................................. 5 1.8 Scope of the Study .......................................................................................................... 8 1.9 Challenges………………………………………………………………………...….....8 1.10 Research Hypotheses .................................................................................................... 8 1.11 Objectives ..................................................................................................................... 8 1.11.1 Main objective ................................................................................................... 8 1.11.2 Specific Objectives ............................................................................................ 8 CHAPTER TWO .............................................................................................................. 10 LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................ 10 2.1 Wildlife Resources and Protected Areas....................................................................... 10 2.2 Management of Wildlife Resources and Resource Conflicts ....................................... 12 2.3 Conservancies and Protected Areas .............................................................................. 13 2.4 Wildlife Conservation Strategy and Policy................................................................... 15 2.5 Using Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing in Wildlife and Land Management .............................................................................................................. 16 2.6 Protected Areas Management Effectiveness Methodologies ........................................ 18 2.7 Theoretical Framework for Wildlife Conservation Area Management Systems.......... 22 v CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................................... 24 MATERIALS AND METHODS ..................................................................................... 24 3.1 Description of the Five Conservation Study Areas ....................................................... 24 3.2 Location and Baseline Information for the Five Conservation Areas and Regimes ..... 27 3.2.1 Coast Conservation area .................................................................................... 29 3.2.1.1 Shimba Hills National Park ............................................................... 29 3.2.1.2 Mwalughanje Elephant Sanctuary (MES) ......................................... 29 3.2.2 Tsavo Conservation Area .................................................................................. 30 3.2.2.1 Tsavo East and West National Parks ................................................. 30 3.2.2.2 Rukinga Wildlife Sanctuary………………………………………....30 3.2.3 Southern Conservation Area .............................................................................. 33 3.2.3.1 Amboseli National Park ..................................................................... 33 3.2.3.2 Kimana Community Wildlife Conservancy..................................... 35 3.2.4 Central Rift Conservation Area ......................................................................... 36 3.2.4.1 Lake Nakuru National Park ............................................................... 36 3.2.4.2 Soysambu Conservancy ..................................................................... 37 3.2.4.3 Malewa- Kigio Conservancy ............................................................. 38 3.2.5 Mountain Conservation Area ............................................................................. 40 3.2.5.1 Mt. Kenya National Park ................................................................... 40 3.2.5.2 OL Pejeta Conservancy...................................................................... 42 3.2.5.3 Il Ngwesi Community Conservancy .................................................. 43 3.3 Sampling and Sample Sizes .......................................................................................... 44 3.4 Data Collection and Analysis........................................................................................ 45 3.4.1 Data Collection for Household Surveys ............................................................ 46 3.4.2 Sampling of Household Data ............................................................................. 47 3.4.3 Sample Size Formula and Calculation………………………………………....48 3.4.4 Statistical Analysis for Household Surveys in Conservation Areas .................. 50 3.4.5 Data Collection and Analysis for Conservation Area Management .................. 51 3.4.6 Land Use and Land Cover Data in the Five Conservation