University of Calgary PRISM: University of Calgary's Digital Repository Graduate Studies The Vault: Electronic Theses and Dissertations 2013-09-23 Unusual Suspects: Religion, Chieftaincy, and Post-Conflict Reintegration in Sierra Leone Berriault, Tobey Berriault, T. (2013). Unusual Suspects: Religion, Chieftaincy, and Post-Conflict Reintegration in Sierra Leone (Unpublished master's thesis). University of Calgary, Calgary, AB. doi:10.11575/PRISM/28594 http://hdl.handle.net/11023/994 master thesis University of Calgary graduate students retain copyright ownership and moral rights for their thesis. You may use this material in any way that is permitted by the Copyright Act or through licensing that has been assigned to the document. For uses that are not allowable under copyright legislation or licensing, you are required to seek permission. Downloaded from PRISM: https://prism.ucalgary.ca UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY Unusual Suspects: Religion, Chieftaincy, and Post-Conflict Reintegration in Sierra Leone by Tobey Evonne Berriault A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE CALGARY, ALBERTA SEPTEMBER, 2013 © Tobey Evonne Berriault 2013 Abstract This thesis is concerned with the long-term reintegration of Sierra Leone’s ex-combatants. Using the indicators of education, employment, inter-marriage, social stigma, and crime, this thesis argues that the long-term social, economic, and political reintegration of Sierra Leone’s ex- combatants has been widely successful. This research then identifies the initiatives of pre- existing civil society organizations (CSOs) in the form of mosques, churches, and the Inter- Religious Council of Sierra Leone as the primary facilitators of this success. Complementing these efforts is the contribution of traditional authorities in reinforcing the notions of acceptance and by performing cleansing ceremonies and rituals. Through their joint efforts, these institutions were able to foster and reinforce the pre-existing discourse and shared values of national cohesion, tolerance, and acceptance familiar to the majority of Sierra Leoneans. ii Acknowledgements First and foremost I would like to thank my supervisors, Dr. Pablo Policzer and Dr. Maureen Hiebert, for their encouragement and guidance over the course of this research. Additional thanks to Dr. Gavin Cameron, Dr. Rowland Apentiik, and Dr. Robert Huebert for serving on my committee. Immense gratitude to those who offered funding for this research: the University of Calgary; the Department of Political Science for my travel to Sierra Leone; the Métis Nation of Alberta; and to the generous donors at Indspire. I am also very grateful to my host university, the Department of History and African Studies at the Fourah Bay College. Also, a special thank you to Dr. Joe A. D. Alie for his guidance, encouragement, and for always being a pleasure to meet with. Special thank you as well to Martha Chigozie for opening so many doors for me; to my host families in Freetown, Bo, and Kenema; to Sasco, Blacka, and Salam for guiding me around Freetown and for keeping me out of trouble; and to my fellow researchers Larissa and Rebecca for their companionship and for making the whole experience that much more fun. Finally, I would like to give a special thank you to all the participants in this study, for their openness and willingness to find time despite the hectic time of year. iii Dedication To the people of: the Small Bo, Nongowa, Kakua, and Tikonko chiefdoms, and the country of Sierra Leone. iv Table of Contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................ iii Dedication ...................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents ............................................................................................................ v List of Tables ................................................................................................................ vii List of Symbols, Abbreviations and Nomenclature ....................................................... viii CHAPTER 1: POST-CONFLICT REINTEGRATION IN SIERRA LEONE .................. 1 Introduction................................................................................................................. 1 Conceptualizing Reintegration .................................................................................... 3 Overview of the Findings ............................................................................................ 4 Theory Explaining Reintegration in Sierra Leone ........................................................ 5 Literature Review ........................................................................................................ 7 Case Selection and Methodology ............................................................................... 13 Limitations ................................................................................................................ 17 CHAPTER 2: MAKING THE CASE FOR SUCCESSFUL REINTEGRATION ........... 21 Background ............................................................................................................... 21 Disarming, Demobilizing, and Reintegrating the Factions ......................................... 24 Assessing Long-Term Reintegration.......................................................................... 25 Indicator 1: Education .......................................................................................... 26 Indicator 2: Employment ...................................................................................... 32 Indicator 3: Inter-Marriage ................................................................................... 39 Indicator 4: Social Stigma .................................................................................... 42 Indicator 5: Crime ................................................................................................ 53 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 56 CHAPTER 3: THE USUAL SUSPECTS: IGO AND NGO INITIATIVES FOR RECONCILIATION ............................................................................................ 57 National Reconciliation and the TRCs ....................................................................... 58 Criticisms............................................................................................................. 59 Sensitization .............................................................................................................. 66 Criticisms............................................................................................................. 67 Counselling ............................................................................................................... 68 Criticisms............................................................................................................. 69 Grassroots Traditional Reconciliation NGOs ............................................................. 71 Criticisms............................................................................................................. 73 The Overall Picture: A Failure to Produce Lasting Reconciliation ............................. 77 CHAPTER 4: UNUSUAL SUSPECTS: RELIGION AND CHIEFTAINCY IN RECONCILIATION ............................................................................................ 83 The History of Religious Tolerance in Sierra Leone .................................................. 84 v Early Christianity ...................................................................................................... 84 The Spread of Islam .................................................................................................. 85 Islam in Colonial Sierra Leone: the Beginning of Religious Tolerance ...................... 86 Religious Influence and the Civil War ....................................................................... 89 The Inter-Religious Council of Sierra Leone ............................................................. 92 IRCSL and the Negotiations ...................................................................................... 93 IRCSL’s Post-War Activism ..................................................................................... 95 Why this Worked in Sierra Leone............................................................................ 100 Social Factors Conducive to Success ....................................................................... 101 Explaining Success.................................................................................................. 104 Pre-Colonial Traditional Authorities and Practices .................................................. 107 Colonial Rule and the Creation of Chieftaincy ......................................................... 110 Chieftaincy in the Post-Colonial Period ................................................................... 111 Chieftaincy and the Civil War ................................................................................. 112 Chieftaincy in the Post-Conflict Period...................................................................