Agricultural Expertise and Knowledge Practices among Individualized Farm Households in Tajikistan Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung der Doktorwürde der Philosophischen Fakultät der Rheinischen Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität zu Bonn vorgelegt von Andreas Mandler aus Erfurt Bonn 2019 Gedruckt mit der Genehmigung der Philosophischen Fakultät der Rheinischen Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn Zusammensetzung der Prüfungskommission: Prof. Christoph Antweiler (Vorsitzender) Prof. Eva Youkhana (Gutachterin) Prof. Conrad Schetter (Gutachter) Prof. Anna-Katharina Hornidge (weiteres prüfungs- berechtigtes Mitglied) Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 11. September 2018 2 Саҳар мегуфт булбул боғбонро, «Дар ин боғ ҷуз ниҳоли ғам нарӯяд, Ба пирӣ мерасад хори биёбон, Вале гул чун ҷавон гардад, бимирад». In the morning a nightingale told the gardener, “In this soil besides the seedling of sorrow nothing will grow. A desert thistle will reach old age But a flower, like a young person, may die.” Muhammad Iqbal 3 4 Table of Content ABSTRACT 11 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 13 NOTES ON LANGUAGE AND TRANSLITERATION 15 DEUTSCHE KURZFASSUNG 17 MAPS OF THE REGION 32 ACRONYMS AND GLOSSARY 34 1 INTRODUCTION: AGRICULTURAL KNOWLEDGE IN RURAL TAJIKISTAN 37 Post-Soviet Restructuration of the Tajik Agriculture 39 Agricultural Expertise and Political Economy in Rural Tajikistan 48 Knowledge and Expertise in the Individualized Agriculture? 51 Methodology: Knowledge Practices in Agriculture 52 Structure of the Thesis: Outlook on Chapters 56 2 KNOWLEDGE AND GOVERNANCE IN RURAL CENTRAL ASIA 61 Epistemic Cultures in Agriculture and Rural Areas 62 The Social Construction of Knowledge in Everyday Life 67 Co-production of Epistemic Cultures 76 Conceptualizing Governance 87 Assemblages and Post-Soviet Meshwork Governance 94 Summary: Meshwork Governance and Epistemic Cultures 105 3 FARM RESTRUCTURING AND TRANSFORMATION OF AGRICULTURAL KNOWLEDGE 107 The Individualization of the Tajik Agriculture 111 Agricultural Information, Advice and Expertise in Rural Tajikistan 126 Intersection: Media in Rural Tajikistan 134 Summary: Obstacles to Individualized Expertise 137 5 4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS, HYPOTHESIS AND METHODOLOGY 139 Research Approach 140 Field Research Methodologies 146 5 LIVELIHOOD PROVISION IN THE ZARAFSHAN VALLEY 153 Livelihood Provision and Demographic Development in the Zarafshan Valley 161 Intersection: The Household of Hokima, Female Farmer 179 Access to Arable Land 181 Zarafshani’ Agriculture as Limited Access Order 188 Summary: Challenges to Rural Livelihood Provision 196 6 THE INDIVIDUALIZATION OF AGRICULTURE AS CRISIS OF EXPERTISE 199 Agricultural Information and Expertise in Zarafshani Rural Communities 200 Restrained Investments in Seed Potatoes 209 Considering the Dehqon Farm 220 Summary: Crisis of Expertise 228 7 NEGOTIATING NORMATIVE SYSTEMS: BOBOGI ACCESS ARRANGEMENTS 231 Bobogi Access Arrangements: Values and Moralities 232 Intersection: Mualimi Russi and his Wife 239 Local Governance through Parallel Normative Systems 248 Intersection: Darvonho, Guard of the Graveyard 255 Summary: Access Arrangements as Meshwork Governance 261 8 ARIZA LETTERS TO MANOEUVER MESHWORK GOVERNANCE 265 Ariza Interventions in Agricultural Processes 266 Intersection: Public Request to Remove the Army Camp 269 6 Forum Shopping with Ariza Letters 276 Letter Writing as Political Steering 282 Summary: Ariza Letters as Knowledge Practice 290 9 SHIFTING EPISTEMIC CULTURES IN THE ZARAFSHAN VALLEY 293 Marginalization of Agricultural Expertise 294 Knowledge Practices to Manoeuver Limited Access Orders 297 Shifting Epistemic Cultures in the Zarafshan Valley 307 10 EPISTEMIC CONDITIONS AND AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT 315 Reshaping Epistemic Conditions 321 11 BIBLIOGRAPHY 325 7 Maps Map 1 The commonwealth of independent states, CIS. Source: https://legacy.lib.utexas.edu/maps/commonwealth/cis_central_asia_pol_ 95.jpg (accessed 12/2016). ......................................................................... 32 Map 2 Topography of Tajikistan and its political context of Central Asia. Source: http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/commonwealth/tajikistan_rel01.jpg (accessed 01/2016). .................................................................................... 33 Map 3 Topography of Tajikistan and the Zarafshan Valley. Sources: google/maps.com (accessed 01/2016) and http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/commonwealth/tajikistan_rel01.jpg (accessed 01/2016). Modified by the author. ............................................. 54 Map 4 Topography of the Zarafshan Valley. Source: google/maps.com (accessed 01/2016). .................................................................................. 153 Map 5 Administrative division of the Zarafshan Valley. Source: Welthungerhilfe Tajikistan, modification by the author. .......................... 158 Figures Figure 1 Post-Soviet transformation of the Tajik agricultural sector with its impact on epistemic cultures and agricultural expertise. Source: The author. ......................................................................................................... 55 Figure 2 Temperatures and precipitation in Madrushkat village in the upper Zarafshan Valley. Source: Meteorological office in Madrushkat village, modifications by the author. ......................................................... 155 Figure 3 Temperatures and precipitation in the city of Panjakent in the lower Zarafshan Valley. Source: http://www.worldweatheronline.com/panjakent-weather- averages/sughd/tj.aspx (accessed 01/2016). ........................................... 156 Figure 4 Scheme of administrative and local governance structures in the Zarafshan Valley. Source: The author. ...................................................... 251 8 Tables Table 1 Organizations involved in local governance processes in the Zarafshan Valley. Source: Own observations and Shaumarov (2008, Figure 9), Roche (2005) and Stephan (2010). ...................................................... 160 Table 2 Access to natural resources and livelihood strategies. Source: Own calculations based on Welthungerhilfe, DFID et al. (2008), interviews and the jamoat statistic office. ........................................................................ 162 Table 3 Relational scheme of the distribution of rural stakeholders. Source: Author’s compilation................................................................................. 169 Table 4 Distribution of arable land in the three administrative districts along the Zarafshan River. Source: Own calculation based on Tajik Farm Diary (2013). .............................................................................................. 174 Table 5 Relational comparison of households and provision of livelihoods in the Zarafshan Valley. Source: Data compiled by the author, based on Ege (2008). ....................................................................................................... 176 Table 6 Individual or family dehqon farms in the research communities at the end of 2012. Source: Author’s compilation based on Welthungerhilfe, DFID et al. (2008), own calculations and the jamoat statistic office. ....... 221 Table 7 Zarafshani knowledge practices related to normative systems. Source: The author .................................................................................... 309 9 Photographs Photograph 1 Irrigated land plots in the upper Zarafshan Valley near Revomutk village. Source: The author. ..................................................... 154 Photograph 2 Dry mountain vegetation near Soosun village. Source: The author. ....................................................................................................... 157 Photograph 3 Apricot trees in the central Zarafshan Valley near Ayni. Source: The author. ................................................................................... 161 Photograph 4 The kitchen garden of Osunmurod in Garibak village. Source: The author. ................................................................................................ 165 Photograph 5 Cattle pasture on rice fields in the lower Zarafshan area near Panjakent. Source: The author. ................................................................. 166 Photograph 6 Potato field in the upper Zarafshan Valley near Revomutk village. Source: The author. ....................................................................... 168 Photograph 7 Pasture above Garibak village. Source: The author. .......... 188 Photograph 8 Cutting germinated seed potatoes of local variety. Brown spots in the centre indicate the poor quality of seeds. Source: The author. ................................................................................................................... 217 Photograph 9 The Panjakent wife with her daughter. Source: The author. ................................................................................................................... 239 Photograph 10 Re-enacting the procedure of kalidi Islom . Source: The author. ....................................................................................................... 247 Photograph 11 Asleddin, the former chief of the village committee. Source: The author. ................................................................................... 259 Photograph 12 Majlisi [village assembly] in the lower Zarafshan area. Source: The author. ................................................................................... 270 Photograph 13 Ritualized Compliance: Gestures of modesty performed