University of Wollongong Research Online University of Wollongong Thesis Collection 1954-2016 University of Wollongong Thesis Collections 2015 Sport and politics in Bahrain: A case study of the royal family Al-Khalifa's control of sports media Ali Rabea University of Wollongong Follow this and additional works at: https://ro.uow.edu.au/theses University of Wollongong Copyright Warning You may print or download ONE copy of this document for the purpose of your own research or study. The University does not authorise you to copy, communicate or otherwise make available electronically to any other person any copyright material contained on this site. You are reminded of the following: This work is copyright. Apart from any use permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part of this work may be reproduced by any process, nor may any other exclusive right be exercised, without the permission of the author. 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Recommended Citation Rabea, Ali, Sport and politics in Bahrain: A case study of the royal family Al-Khalifa's control of sports media, Master of Arts - Research thesis, School of the Arts, English and Media, University of Wollongong, 2015. https://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/4834 Research Online is the open access institutional repository for the University of Wollongong. For further information contact the UOW Library: [email protected] Sport and Politics in Bahrain: A Case Study of the Royal Family Al-Khalifa's Control of Sports Media A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree Master of Arts - Research from University of Wollongong by Ali Rabea School of the Arts, English and Media Faculty of Law, Humanities and the Arts 2015 Thesis certification CERTIFICATION I, Ali Rabea, declare that this thesis, submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Master of Arts - Research, in the School of the Arts, English and Media, Faculty of Law, Humanities and the Arts, University of Wollongong, is wholly my own work unless otherwise referenced or acknowledged. The document has not been submitted for qualifications at any other academic institution Ali Rabea December 2015 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my very great appreciation to my principal supervisor Dr. Eric Loo for his support and help in the past years. It has been a pleasure knowing and working with you and I wish you the best in your life. I also would like to express my gratitude to my co-supervisor Dr. Ruth Walker for her assistance and guidance. Words cannot describe the great work you have done. Thanks for working with me during the weekends and holidays. Without you this work would not have been accomplished. I am also grateful to Dr. Vincent J. Cincotta, Dr. Madeleine Strong Cincotta and Dr. Meeta Chatterjee Padmanabhan. I also thank Dr. Denis Whitfield for editing the thesis. To my family.. I love you and I miss you. بسم رب العلم والعلماء والصﻻة والسﻻم على من بعث باقرأ وبنون والقلم وما يسطرون وعلى آله الطيبين الطاهرين.. إلى اشتياقي أمي وأبي وإخوتي.. لوﻻكم لما كان هذا العمل المتواضع. هذه هديتي إلى تلك البقعة المظلومة نسأل هللا الفرج القريب لها وﻷهلها. إلى بنات وأبناء إخواني الذين غمروني بحبهم.. إلى زوجات إخواني.. إلى أصدقائي وكل من دعمني خﻻل هذه الرحلة الطويلة.. إليكم جميعاً جزيل الشكر والعرفان. هذه ليست إﻻ البداية. تعلمت مما مضى.. تعلمت من الشقاء والقسوة والفرح والسعادة.. تعلمت أن ﻻ أستكين أو أستسلم.. وهاأنذا أقوى وأكثر صﻻبة من أي وقت مضى. إلى فـ إلى لـ إلى سـ إلى طـ إلى يـ إلى نـ.. إلى الحرية قريبا ً.. i ABSTRACT This thesis explores the relationship between sports media and politics in Bahrain in 2011 when Bahrainis gathered at the Pearl Roundabout to protest for greater freedom, equality, and an end to the Al-Khalifa regime during the wave of national protests in the region that is now known as The Arab Spring. It argues that sports media in particular was used as a propaganda tool by the Al-Khalifa family regime to suppress the protest. This thesis addresses two research questions: how did the pro-regime sports media frame the uprising in Bahrain and what strategies were used by the Al-Khalifa regime to politicize the sports media? A quantitative and qualitative content analysis was conducted of the sports media coverage in two sports newspapers and two television sports programmes in the period between March and May 2011 when demonstrations spread across Bahrain, sports activities were suspended and martial law was introduced following a general national strike. The content analysis identified three main frames that the pro-regime sports media employed to define the uprising: the characterization frame, the consequences frame, and the unpatriotic frame. Also identified were three accompanying strategies that helped implement the frames: vilifying the demonstrations, glorifying the Al-Khalifa family, and a third double edged strategy undermining the protesters while simultaneously praising the supporters of the ruling family. These strategies were supported by a number of techniques including the use of sources, the use of images of the protests, and the use of visual and audio content. This thesis concludes that the sports media was used as a propaganda tool by the Al- Khalifa family regime in Bahrain to suppress the 2011 uprising, to name and shame the protesters, and to preserve the status quo. Keywords: Sports media, The Arab Spring, Bahrain, the Al-Khalifa family, framing, propaganda ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................................... i ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................................... iii LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................... vii 1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 The 2011 uprising in Bahrain .......................................................................................... 8 1.2 Sport and the Al-Khalifa family ...................................................................................... 11 1.3 The state of Bahrain ......................................................................................................... 16 1.4 Media in Bahrain ............................................................................................................. 17 1.5 The press law ................................................................................................................... 19 1.6 Significance of this study ................................................................................................ 25 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................................................... 28 2.1 State-controlled media and The Arab Spring .................................................................. 28 2.2 Social media and The Arab Spring .................................................................................. 32 2.3 The regime's use of social media ..................................................................................... 34 2.4 Sports media and public opinion ..................................................................................... 36 2.5 Sport, human rights and politics ...................................................................................... 38 2.6 The 2011 uprising and foreign influences ....................................................................... 41 3. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND NEWS FRAMING ............................................... 46 3.1 Theoretical framework .................................................................................................... 46 3.2 Use of framing in media .................................................................................................. 54 3.2.1 Framing and social movements .................................................................................... 57 3.2.2 Framing and propaganda .............................................................................................. 60 4. NEWSPAPER DATA ANALYSIS: METHODS AND FINDINGS .................................... 66 4.1 Rationale for selecting Akhbar Al-Khaleej and Al-Bilad ................................................. 66 4.2 Collecting newspaper data ............................................................................................... 68 4.3 Sports sections and types of articles ................................................................................ 69 4.3.1 Explicit coverage of the uprising .................................................................................. 70 4.3.2 Implicit coverage of the uprising