The University as an Agent of Social Change: The Chilean Experience Ricardo Chacón Mestre A Thesis submitted to Auckland University of Technology in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy [PhD] 2015 Department of Economics Faculty of Business and Law 1 ABSTRACT This thesis examines educational outcomes in Chile to determine whether or not universities act as agents of social change or whether they merely reinforce existing inequalities in society. In order to address this issue, the thesis builds a multi-layered interpretation of social change and a historically sensitive understanding of Chile’s development over time. By adopting an integrated approach linking the country’s social and cultural traditions with political, economic and social realities, the research builds a dynamic interpretation of the way in which higher education in Chile has been shaped by internal and external forces over time. As in other higher education systems the public discourse in Chile identifies universities as ‘agents of social change’ with the assumption being that these institutions act in the public interest as ‘critic and conscience’ of society. The fundamental problem with assumptions such as these is that they stem from theoretical and ideological positions that dominate the discourse on higher education rather than a detailed examination of empirical outcomes. By utilising two alternative theoretical traditions, namely human capital theory and the critical tradition, this research examines the trend data for Chilean universities in terms of enrolment, the teaching-learning process and outcomes. From this detailed empirical examination, it is evident that participation rates in higher education have increased over the past twenty years and this includes the increasing participation rates of the most vulnerable socio-economic groups. The gap in terms of access to higher education however, remains wide when comparing individual social and economic groups. Inequities in academic progress are linked to the social origins of students and directly impact on academic success. These disparities are reinforced by the labour market in terms of employment opportunities and in the persistence of barriers for ‘working class’ graduates seeking to climb the social scale. It seems evident from this research that the higher education system perpetuates and maintains inequalities rather than facilitating mobility and social equity. Despite the expressions of confidence in education as a force for change this research questions those assumptions and in that respect it makes an original contribution to knowledge. It challenges us to focus on societal trends and outcomes rather than the individuals in the system. The research concludes by making a number of tentative policy recommendations as well as suggesting areas for further research. 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Number ABSTRACT 2 LIST OF FIGURES 8 LIST OF TABLES 10 ACRONYMS 12 ATTESTATION OF AUTHORSHIP 13 ACKNOWLDGEMENTS 14 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 16 CHAPTER TWO: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 21 2.1. Human Capital Theory 22 2.2. Reproduction Theory 23 2.3. Social and private benefit of higher education 26 2.4. Social mobility, theories and discussion 30 2.5. The concept of equity 34 CHAPTER THREE: PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT IN CHILE 36 3.1. The Foundations of the Chilean State 39 3.1.1 Economic Order 39 3 3.1.2 The Social Foundations 40 3.2. The Authoritarian Republic 44 3.2.1 Economic order 44 3.2.2 Social Order 48 3.3. The military dictatorship 51 3.4. The re-emergence of the republic and the re-instatement of democracy 54 3.5 Conclusion 55 CHAPTER FOUR: THE NATURE OF INEQUALITY IN CHILE 57 4.1 Income Inequality 60 4.2 Education and Inequality 64 CHAPTER FIVE: METHODOLOGY AND METHODS 71 5.1 Introduction 71 5.2 The context 72 5.3 Chilean higher education performance 72 5.3.1 National Socioeconomic Survey (CASEN) 73 5.3.2 National Education Council 74 5.3.3 National Academic Register (DEMRE) 74 5.3.4 Futuro Laboral 75 5.3.5 Chilean Higher Education Information System (SIES) 76 5.3.6 Ingresa 76 5.4 Case Study 77 5.4.1 Student data base, before 2008 78 5.4.2 Student data base, 2005-2012 80 5.4.3 Graduates 80 4 CHAPTER SIX: THE DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN CHILE: AN INTERNATIONAL OVERVIEW OF MODELS AND THEIR IMPLICATONS FOR THE CHILEAN CONTEXT 82 6.1. Foundation of Higher Education Systems 83 6.2. Higher Education Models 87 6.3. Education in Chile 90 6.3.1 The Nineteenth Century 90 6.4. Funding policies in the higher education system in Chile 97 6.4.1 Expenditure in Education 98 6.4.2 Public Expenditure on higher education in Chile 98 6.4.3 Public Direct Allocation (AFD) 100 6.4.4 Loans and scholarships 102 6.4.5 Public Indirect Allocation (AFI) 103 6.4.6 Institutional Development Funding (FDI) 104 6.5 Private expenditure in higher education in Chile 107 6.6 Assessment and quality assurance in higher education 109 6.7 Policies and mechanisms of student enrolment 112 6.8. Conclusions 113 CHAPTER SEVEN: OUTCOMES AND PERFORMANCE OF THE HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM IN CHILE 116 7.1. Levels of enrolment in the tertiary education system in Chile 116 7.1.1 Evolution of secondary students 116 7.1.2 Scores obtained according to type of secondary school 120 7.1.3 Evolution of applications and enrolment 122 7.1.4 Enrolment by CRUCH institutions, scores in PSU and secondary school of origin 124 7.2. Participation rates and their evolution by type of higher education institution 126 7.2.1 Evolution of participation rates 126 7.2.2 Evolution of students and participation rates by socioeconomic group 130 5 7.2.3 Evolution of socioeconomic group within the higher education institutions 134 7.2.4 Regional distribution of higher education participation rates 135 7.3. Academic performance of the Chilean higher education system (drop out and completion time) 141 7.3.1 Retention rates 141 7.3.2 Completion time 145 7.4. Graduation and employment performance 148 7.4.1 Graduation 148 7.4.2 Employment 151 7.5. Outcomes of funding policies and implementation mechanisms 154 7.5.1 Public funding 154 7.5.1.1 Public direct allocation (AFD) 154 7.5.1.2 Public indirect allocation (AFI) 159 7.5.2 Institutional Development Funding 161 7.5.3 Loans and scholarships 162 7.5.4 Private expenditure 165 7.6 Accreditation and quality assessment 169 7.7 Conclusions 173 CHAPTER EIGHT: CASE STUDY UNIVERSIDAD CATOLICA DEL MAULE CHILE 178 8.1. The Maule Region 181 8.2. Higher education in The Maule´s Region 183 8.3. Enrolment of students in UCM 190 8.4. Academic performance 195 8.4.1 Retention and dropout 195 8.4.2 Graduation 199 8.4.3 Completion Time 202 8.4.4 Graduates and Employment 205 8.4.4.1 Interview of graduates 205 6 8.4.4.2. Ministry of Education 209 8.4.4.3. Alumni Survey 211 8.5. Resource Analysis at UCM 219 8.7 Conclusions 225 CHAPTER NINE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 228 9.1 Policy directions 235 9.2. Contribution to the stage of knowledge 236 REFERENCES 239 7 LIST OF FIGURES PAGE Figure 2.1.: Stream of knowledge regarding education and its outcomes 26 Figure 2.2: Schematic description of the productive process in higher education 27 Figure 2.3: Public and private benefits of higher education 29 Figure 2.4: The space of social position according Bourdieu and Passeron 32 Figure 4.1: Gini coefficient late-2000s, OECD countries 61 Figure 6.1.: Evolution of higher education funding. In thousands of Chilean pesos 99 Figure 6.2.: Composition process of Pubic Direct Allocation 100 Figure 6.3.: Formula for calculating allocation of 5% variable 101 Figure 6.4.: Growth of public funding allocated to institutions who do not belongs to CRUCH 103 Figure 6.5: Evolution of AFI by type of higher education institution, 1990-2010 104 Figure 7.1.: Evolution of student registration for the national university selection test 117 Figure 7.2. : Distribution of students taking PSU according type of school 118 Figure 7.3.: Comparison between registered students and student who took PSU 120 Figure 7.4.: Trend of the application to enrol in publicly funded universities 123 Figure 7.5.: Proportion of students enrolled in CRUCH universities among those who took PSU 124 Figure 7.6.: Percentage of students enrolled in CRUCH universities 125 Figure 7.7.: Evolution of students in higher education 127 Figure 7.8.: Evolution of students in higher education by type of institution 1983-2010 129 Figure 7.9.: Distribution of students by quintile of income in each type of institution 2011 135 Figure 7.10: Average percentage of students enrolled by universities of CRUCH coming from the region of the main university campus (2004-2010) 137 Figure 7.11: Retention rates of cohort 2008, by level of higher education 142 Figure 7.12: Evolution of graduates by type of Higher Education institution 151 Figure 7.13: Public Direct Allocation by CRUCH university 1992 and 2013 155 Figure 7.14: Public direct allocation by student and institution in 2010 157 8 Figure 7.15: Growth of publications, research grants and academics holding Master and PhD within the CRUCH universities 158 Figure 7.16: Distribution of Basal Performance Fund 2011-2012 by student by CRUCH universities 162 Figure 7.17: Number of universities accredited by areas and years of accreditation 171 Figure 8.1. : Distribution of students by secondary school in Maule Region 2013 185 Figure 8.2: Enrolment in universities in the seventh region for 2012-2013 189 Figure 8.3: Distribution of students in the Maule Region by type of institution 2013 190 Figure 8.4.: Participation of students in the universities