Optimising translocation strategies in the conservation management of reptiles; a case study of an endangered Australian skink Tiliqua adelaidensis Mehregan Ebrahimi M. Sc. In Animal Biosystematics, Shiraz University Presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Biological Sciences Flinders University Australia October 2013 Supervisors: Prof Michael Bull, School of Biological Sciences, Flinders University Dr. Mark Hutchinson, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Adelaide/ South Australian Museum © 2013 Mehregan Ebrahimi All Rights Reserved ii TABLE OF CONTENTS SUMMARY ......................................................................... IX DECLARATION .............................................................. XIV ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................ XV ORGANISATION OF THESIS ....................................... XVII CANDIDATE CONTRIBUTION .................................. XVIII CHAPTER ONE ................................................................... 1 1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION ........................................ 1 BIODIVERSITY AND EXTINCTION...................................................... 1 CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT ....................................................... 7 DIFFERENT CONSERVATION MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES ................. 15 1.3.1. Protected area ................................................................. 16 1.3.2. Landscape-scale conservation ............................................ 17 1.3.3. Conserving the evolutionary process ................................... 17 1.3.4. Ecological restoration ....................................................... 18 1.3.5. In situ conservation.......................................................... 18 1.3.6. Ex situ conservation ......................................................... 18 1.3.7. Translocation .................................................................. 21 1.3.8. Reptile translocation ........................................................ 29 AUSTRALIAN REPTILES: A CASE STUDY.......................................... 38 1.4.1. The Mabuya group of skinks .............................................. 39 1.4.2. Tiliqua ............................................................................ 40 1.4.3. Tiliqua adelaidensis (Peters, 1863) .................................... 43 STUDY AIMS ................................................................................. 48 CHAPTER TWO ................................................................. 51 2. GENERAL METHODS .................................................. 51 iii CAPTURE AND TRANSLOCATION OF PYGMY BLUETONGUE LIZARDS . 51 STUDY AREA ................................................................................ 54 ENCLOSURES ................................................................................ 56 ARTIFICIAL BURROWS .................................................................. 58 ENCLOSURES AND ARTIFICIAL BURROWS MAINTENANCE ................. 60 SURVEILLANCE CAMERAS .............................................................. 62 DATA ANALYSIS ........................................................................... 65 CHAPTER THREE ............................................................. 67 3. SHORT-TERM CONFINEMENT TIME ....................... 67 HARD RELEASE OR SOFT RELEASE ................................................. 67 ABSTRACT ................................................................................... 70 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................ 71 METHODS .................................................................................... 74 3.4.1. Experiment design and data collection ................................ 75 3.4.2. Analysis .......................................................................... 79 RESULTS ...................................................................................... 80 3.5.1. Effect of ambient temperature ........................................... 80 3.5.2. Effect of treatment: Wall removed after one day or five days 81 DISCUSSION .................................................................................. 85 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................. 88 CHAPTER FOUR ................................................................ 90 4. SUPPLEMENTARY FOOD .......................................... 90 RESOURCE AVAILABILITY ............................................................. 90 ABSTRACT ................................................................................... 93 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................ 94 MATERIALS AND METHODS ........................................................... 98 RESULTS .................................................................................... 104 iv 4.5.1. Effect of ambient temperature ......................................... 104 4.5.1. Activity time ................................................................. 105 4.5.2. Total activity and number of movements .......................... 107 4.5.4. Basking time and number of fights ................................... 110 DISCUSSION ................................................................................ 112 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................ 116 CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................... 117 5. BURROW DENSITY AND LAYOUT......................... 117 THE IMPORTANCE OF REFUGES ................................................... 117 ABSTRACT ................................................................................. 119 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 120 METHODS .................................................................................. 125 5.4.1. Experimental trials ......................................................... 125 5.4.2. Behavioural parameters .................................................. 131 5.4.3. Statistical analyses ......................................................... 133 RESULTS .................................................................................... 134 5.5.1. Experiment one: Burrow density ...................................... 135 5.5.2. Experiment two: Release location .................................... 137 5.5.3. Experiment three: Burrow clustering ................................ 139 DISCUSSION ................................................................................ 142 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................. 145 CHAPTER SIX .................................................................. 147 6. SIMULATED AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES .......... 147 THE IMPORTANCE OF LIZARD BEHAVIOUR CHANGES ..................... 147 ABSTRACT ................................................................................. 149 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 150 METHODS .................................................................................. 155 v 6.4.1. Experiment one (Vegetation density experiment)............... 156 6.4.2. Experiment two (Surrounding matrix ploughed and vegetation density experiment) ..................................................................... 160 RESULTS .................................................................................... 161 6.5.1. Experiment one .............................................................. 161 6.5.2. Experiment two .............................................................. 163 DISCUSSION ................................................................................ 166 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................. 171 CHAPTER SEVEN ............................................................ 172 7. CONSPECIFIC CUES ................................................. 172 IMPORTANCE OF CONSPECIFICS ................................................... 172 ABSTRACT ................................................................................. 174 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 175 7.4.1. Experimental trials ......................................................... 178 7.4.2. Behavioural parameters .................................................. 182 7.4.3. Statistical analyses ......................................................... 185 RESULTS .................................................................................... 186 7.5.1. Do lizards respond to the models?.................................... 186 7.5.2. Do lizards behave differently with and without models present? 191 CONCLUSION .............................................................................. 197 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................ 198 CHAPTER EIGHT ............................................................ 199 8. EFFECT OF SEASON OF RELEASE ......................... 199 TIME OF TRANSLOCATION ........................................................... 199 ABSTRACT ................................................................................. 201 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 202 vi METHODS .................................................................................. 206 RESULTS ...................................................................................