Homarid Lobster Hatcheries: Their History and Role in Research, Management, and Aquaculture FRANK NICOSIA and KARI LAVALLI Introduction from the scientifi c research they con- investigated within these hatchery set- ducted. Bardach et al. (1972) empha- tings; questions concerning the state of Most historical reviews on lobster, sized the activities conducted at the the fi shery and its preservation were also Homarus spp., hatcheries have dealt hatchery on Martha’s Vineyard, Mass. addressed (Herrick, 1894, 1895, 1911a; with the specifi c objectives of hatchery In each case, the reviews focused on the Scattergood, 1949b). The information operation: hatching eggs and release economic and biological successes or gained thus far (reviewed in Cobb, 1976; of Stage I larvae or the rearing and failures of hatchery efforts (see Mead, Cobb and Phillips, 1980; McVey, 1983; release of Stage IV postlarvae (Nigrelli, 1910; Scattergood, 1949b; Taylor, 1950; Cobb and Wang, 1985; D’Abramo and 1936; Carlson, 1954; Thomas, 1964; Carlson, 1955; Taylor and Dow, 1958; Conklin, 1985; Mackenzie and Moring, Wilder, 1972; Dexter, 1986). Kenslor Prudden, 1962; Dow, 1969). However, 1985; Waddy, 1988; Aiken and Waddy, (1970) reviewed lobster hatcheries and, the current usefulness of lobster hatch- 1989, 1995; Lee and Wickins, 1992; to a limited extent, the benefi ts accruing eries in advancing knowledge about the Chang and Conklin, 1993; Conklin and life-history of homarid lobsters has not Chang, 1993; Factor, 1995; Waddy and Frank W. Nicosia is with Tri-Aqua Gold Lobster been fully explored. Aiken, 1995) has accumulated from over Farms, P.O. Box 2, Smithtown, NY 11787. Kari L. Lavalli is with the Department of Biology, From as early as 1858, experimental 100 years of detailed experiments. In Southwest Texas State University, 601 Univer- lobster culture has provided a large retrospect, the facts obtained from the sity Drive, San Marcos, TX 78666. Mention of trade names or commercial fi rms does not imply volume of information on the species’ early work of hatcheries formed a sound endorsement by the National Marine Fisheries life history (Scattergood, 1949a; Lewis, foundation from which current lobster Service, NOAA. Views or opinions expressed or 1970; Nowak, 1972). Anatomy, phys- research and management evolved. implied by the authors do not necessarily refl ect the position of the National Marine Fisheries Ser- iology, development, general habits, This paper reviews and summarizes vice, NOAA. behavior, and preferred habitats were the literature on past and present hom- arid lobster culture, hatchery activities, and stock enhancement programs, and ABSTRACT—This paper provides an his- descriptions of life stages, behavior, phys- gives recommendations for their future torical review of homarid lobster fi sheries, iology, etc.—has generally been confi rmed the development and usage of lobster hatch- rather than refuted and has stimulated fur- use. Most of the emphasis will be on eries, and much of the research infl uenced ther research important for an understand- the American lobster, Homarus ameri- by hatchery-initiated studies on natural his- ing of the life history of homarid lobsters. canus (Fig. 1) with references made to tory, physiology, and morphological devel- The connections between homarid fi sheries comparable data for H. gammarus (pre- opment of the lobster, Homarus spp. Few and hatchery operations (i.e. culturing of the viously H. vulgaris). The three species commercial lobster hatcheries exist in the lobsters), whether small- or large-scale for world today, yet their potential usage in fi eld and laboratory research, are important of clawed lobsters, H. americanus, H. restocking efforts in various countries is con- to understand so that better tools for fi shery gammarus, and Nephrops norvegicus, stantly being reexamined, particularly when management can be developed. This review have similar morphological and devel- natural stocks are considered “overfi shed.” tries to provide such connections. However, opmental trends (Gruffydd et al., 1975; Furthermore, many individual researchers the rearing techniques in use in today’s hatch- working on homarid lobsters use small- eries—most of which are relics from the past— Howard, 1989). Each species has a scale hatchery operations to provide the are clearly not effi cient enough for large-scale prelarval stage followed by three larval animals necessary for their work as well commercial aquaculture of lobsters or even stages and then a postlarval stage which as animals reared and provided by various for current restocking efforts practiced by sev- resembles the adult. These developmen- governmental agencies interested in specifi c eral countries today. If hatcheries are to be tal similarities imply behavioral and projects on larvae, postlarvae, or juveniles. used to supplement homarid stocks, to restock Such researchers can benefi t from the infor- areas that were overfi shed, or to reintroduce ecological similarities (Berrill, 1974). mation in this review and can avoid many species into their historical ranges, there is Thus, culture techniques and informa- pitfalls previously documented. a clear need to further develop culture tech- tion obtained for one species often can be The development of hatcheries and the niques. This review should help in assessments directly applicable to the others (Van Olst experimental studies that were generated from of culturing techniques for Homarus spp. and their activities have had a direct impact provide a reference source for researchers et al., 1980; Cobb and Wang, 1985). on much of the research on lobsters. The or governmental agencies wishing to avoid Although this is not an exhaustive past work arising from hatchery operations— repeating previous mistakes. review of all hatchery-inspired experi- 61(2), 1999 1 cotton or manila cord heads, tarred and strung to form a “funnel,” which was attached to an entrance ring made of spruce 15.2 cm (6 inches) in diam- eter (Herrick, 1911a). As bait, fi sh- ermen used salted or fresh herring, halibut, hake, and cod heads (Cobb, 1901; Herrick, 1911a; Dow, 1980), or, to a lesser degree, synthetic substances, which consisted of a cloth bag fi lled with sand and saturated with uncooked herring oil, or mackerel pellets satu- rated with redfi sh oil (Prudden, 1962; Dow, 1980). Baited pots were weighted and then placed on the sea bottom, either singly, doubly, or by trawl (8–40 pots) with a rope or cord attached to a wooden fl oat (buoy). Hundreds of traps were pulled (hauled to the boat) by hand several times a day, while others were Figure 1.—American lobster, Homarus americanus. left overnight (Herrick, 1911a; Dow, 1949). When lobsters seemed to be less abundant or more widely scattered in ments and their results, this paper will were gaffed with a hook attached to a the 1880’s, fi shermen returned to the provide the reader with an insight into pole nearshore (Rathbun, 1884a, 1887; less common and older practice of set- how valuable the hatcheries have been Cobb, 1901; Herrick, 1911a; Dow, ting pots singly and altering pot posi- and what their future role could be. 1949; Krouse, 1989; White, 1991). Her- tion daily in hopes of capturing more For the enthusiast wishing to pursue the rick (1895) attributed this abundance of lobsters by covering more fi shing areas subject further, a bibliography of well nearshore lobsters to a bountiful food (Rathbun, 1884a) (Fig. 2). over 400 literature citations and selected supply, but explained that the number An ever increasing demand for the references is also given. To adequately and persistence of lobstermen had pro- lobster as a source of food resulted in review the origins of lobster hatcheries, found effects upon the abundance of tremendous increases in fi shing inten- we must start with a brief overview of larger lobsters. sity and annual landings. The change the history of lobster fi sheries. Lobsters were also taken by hoop from hoop nets to pots allowed so many nets used from small boats near the lobsters to be captured that supply some- History of Lobster Fisheries shoreline (Cobb, 1901; Herrick, 1911a; times exceeded demand, and, in the The American lobster and its Euro- Dow, 1949; Krouse, 1989). Hoop nets United States, lobsters were so abundant pean counterpart, H. gammarus, are were labor intensive due to their con- that they were used as agricultural fertil- among nature’s most valuable resources struction—they consisted of a 70 cm izer, cod bait, and for semicommercial for commercial and, to a limited extent, diameter iron hoop over which two half purposes in the 18th and 19th centuries recreational fi shermen. Until this cen- wooden hoops crossed. The iron hoop (Dow, 1980). By the early 19th cen- tury, these lobsters have been able to was attached to a shallow net bag and tury, what seemed to be an inexhaust- survive the hazards of nature and man- it was baited at the intersection of the ible supply of lobsters had begun to kind, despite commercial fi shing efforts wooden hoops. Because lobsters could decline (Wood, 1869; Rathbun, 1884b). which began as early as the 17th century exit as easily as they could enter the In an effort to ensure a continuous (Herrick, 1911a; Dow, 1949; DeWolf, nets, fi shermen had to pull the nets supply of lobsters, protective measures 1974; Bennett, 1980; Dow, 1980). They every 10–30 minutes (Rathbun, 1887; were passed in state legislatures which were reported as easily captured food Miller, 1995). included licensing fi shermen, leaving or sources in both Canada and New Eng- Around 1840, fi shermen modifi ed returning to the sea “berried” females, land in the early 1600’s and were so those hand practices to achieve more closing certain fi shing areas during par- plentiful that they were also used as fi sh effi ciency and began utilizing a trap ticular seasons, limiting the size of lob- bait and fertilizer in the 1800’s (DeWolf, or “pot” to capture lobsters (Herrick, sters caught, and culturing.