A Petition to List the Giant Manta Ray (Manta birostris), Reef Manta Ray (Manta alfredi), and Caribbean Manta Ray (Manta c.f. birostris) as Endangered, or Alternatively as Threatened, Species Pursuant to the Endangered Species Act and for the Concurrent Designation of Critical Habitat A Swimming Manta Ray at Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary (http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/images/fish/mantaray_fgbnms_noaa.jpg). Submitted to the U.S. Secretary of Commerce acting through the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the National Marine Fisheries Service November 10, 2015 By: Defenders of Wildlife1 535 16th Street, Suite 310 Denver, CO 80202 Phone: (720) 943-0471 (720) 942-0457 [email protected] [email protected] 1 Defenders of Wildlife would like to thank Nadège Montagnon, a law student at the University of Denver, Sturm college of Law, for her substantial research and work preparing this Petition. 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS I. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. II. GOVERNING PROVISIONS OF THE ENDANGERED SPECIES ACT ......................... A. Species and Distinct Population Segments .......................................... B. Significant Portion of the Species’ Range ............................................. C. Listing Factors....................................................................................... D. 90-Day and 12-Month Findings............................................................. E. Reasonable Person Standard................................................................. F. Best Available Scientific and Commercial Data ................................... 1. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (“IUCN”) ................................................................................... 2. IUCN’s Assessment of the Manta Rays .................................... III. SPECIES DESCRIPTION ....................................................................................... A. Common Name ..................................................................................... B. Taxonomy.............................................................................................. C. Physical Characteristics......................................................................... 1. Giant Manta Ray ........................................................................ 2. Reef Manta Ray.......................................................................... 3. Caribbean Manta Ray ................................................................ D. Habitat and Range ................................................................................ 1. Giant Manta Ray ........................................................................ 2. Reef Manta Ray.......................................................................... 3. Caribbean Manta Ray ................................................................ E. Feeding .................................................................................................. F. Reproduction and Lifespan................................................................... G. Population Trend................................................................................... 1. Cross-Regional Trend Information ........................................... a. Giant Manta Ray ............................................................ b. Reef Manta Ray .............................................................. 2. Pacific Ocean ............................................................................. a. Giant Manta Ray ............................................................ b. Reef Manta Ray .............................................................. 3. Indo-Pacific................................................................................ a. Giant Manta Ray ............................................................ b. Reef Manta Ray .............................................................. 4. Indian Ocean.............................................................................. a. Giant Manta Ray ............................................................ b. Reef Manta Ray .............................................................. 5. Atlantic Ocean ........................................................................... IV. IDENTIFIED THREATS TO THE PETITIONED SPECIES: FACTORS FOR LISTING .............................................................................................................. A. The present or threatened destruction, modification, or curtailment of its habitat or range...................................................................................... 1. Coral Reef Loss .......................................................................... 2 a. Bleaching........................................................................ b. Ocean Acidification........................................................ 2. Plastics ....................................................................................... a. Plastic Marine Debris ..................................................... b. Microplastics .................................................................. c. Vectors of Manta Ray Plastic Consumption .................. d. Toxins in Plastics ........................................................... e. Accumulated Toxins ...................................................... f. Blockages and Abrasion ................................................. g. Plastic Prevalence in Manta Ray Habitat ...................... 3. Climate Change (Effects in Addition to Coral Reef Loss) ........ 4. Water Pollution .......................................................................... 5. Fisheries and Resultant Marine Debris..................................... B. Overutilization for Commercial, Recreational, Scientific or Educational Purposes............................................................................ 1. Overutilization for Commercial Purposes ................................. a. Directed Fishing............................................................. i. Pacific Ocean ...................................................... 1. Giant Manta Ray ..................................... 2. Reef Manta Ray ....................................... ii. Indo-Pacific......................................................... 1. Giant Manta Ray ..................................... 2. Reef Manta Ray ....................................... iii. Indian Ocean ...................................................... 1. Giant Manta Ray ..................................... 2. Reef Manta Ray ....................................... iv. Atlantic Ocean .................................................... 1. Giant Manta Ray ..................................... 2. Giant and/or Caribbean Manta Rays ..... 3. Reef Manta Ray ....................................... b. Bycatch ........................................................................... i. Pacific Ocean ...................................................... 1. Giant Manta Ray ..................................... 2. Reef Manta Ray ....................................... ii. Indo-Pacific......................................................... 1. Giant Manta Ray ..................................... 2. Reef Manta Ray ....................................... iii. Indian Ocean ...................................................... 1. Giant Manta Ray ..................................... 2. Reef Manta Ray ....................................... iv. Atlantic Ocean .................................................... 1. Giant Manta Ray ..................................... 2. Reef Manta Ray ....................................... 2. Overutilization for Recreational Purposes................................. 3. Overutilization for Scientific or Educational Purposes............. C. Disease or Predation.............................................................................. 1. Shark Attacks ............................................................................. 2. Orca Attacks............................................................................... 3 3. Parasites ..................................................................................... D. The Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory Mechanisms ......................... 1. National Protection.................................................................... a. Australia (Western Only)................................................ b. Brazil............................................................................... c. Ecuador .......................................................................... d. Honduras........................................................................ e. Indonesia ........................................................................ f. Maldives.......................................................................... g. Mexico ............................................................................ h. New Zealand .................................................................. i. Philippines...................................................................... 2. MPAs.......................................................................................... a. Australia (Western Only)................................................ b. Brazil............................................................................... c. Costa