THE BROTHERHOOD OF COCONUTS: TOURISM, ETHNICITY, AND NATIONAL IDENTITY IN MALINDI , KENYA By David Jamison A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 1993 UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA LIBRARIES ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my supervisor and chairperson, Professor Ronald Cohen, for his never-ending support and guidance throughout this project. I would also like to extend my sincere appreciation to all the members of my doctoral committee. I would like to express special thanks to my friends and family for their support and encouragement throughout this process. Also, I wish to especially thank my parents, Leonard Jamison and the late Jean Jamison. Finally, my deepest, heartfelt appreciation and love go to my wife and closest ally, Lesley. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS £a_ge ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS i i ABSTRACT vi CHAPTERS 1. INTRODUCTION 1 Preface 1 Organization 17 Notes on Language Use 23 2. ETHNICITY AND NATIONAL IDENTITY 25 Modern States and Multi-ethnicity 25 Nationality and Modern State 29 Nationalism and the Third World 33 Inter-ethnic Tensions in Nation-States 38 Ethnicity and Identity 43 Role of the State in Decreasing Ethnic Tension 51 3. THE FIELD SETTING 67 Site Description 67 Beginnings of Swahili Civilization.... 72 The Portuguese Period 76 Arab Influence 78 The British Period 79 Contemporary Developments 83 Tourism and the Future 88 4. THE COASTAL PEOPLES 93 The Swahili 94 Contemporary Swahili Residential Patterns 98 Swahili in Malindi 104 Domestic and Economic Life of the Swahili 110 The Mijikenda 113 iii Contemporary Economic Status of the Mijikenda 116 Mi j ikenda/Giriama Social Status in Malindi 119 5. WATU WA BARA 124 The Kikuyu 124 The Kikuyu in Malindi 128 The Kamba 131 The Kamba in Malindi 134 The Luo 138 The Luo in Malindi 144 The Maasai 145 The Maasai in Malindi 150 The Kalenjin 154 The Kalenjin in Malindi 158 6. WAGENI 160 Watalii 161 Matrevella 163 The Tourists 170 The Expatriates 181 Expatriate Families 189 7. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 195 Ethnographic Method 198 Social Distance Scale 200 The "Kenyaness" Scale 202 The Survey Instrument 2 03 8. RESULTS AND ANALYSES 219 Social Distance Scale 220 The "Kenyaness" Scale 228 9. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 236 Axes of Identification 239 Case Studies 267 Conclusions 290 iv APPENDICES A SURVEY 293 B RESPONSE FREQUENCY FOR ETHNIC DISTANCE SCALE 298 REFERENCES 3 00 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 313 v . Abstract of Dissertation Presented to the Graduate School of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy THE BROTHERHOOD OF COCONUTS: TOURISM, ETHNICITY, AND NATIONAL IDENTITY IN MALINDI , KENYA By David Jamison December 1993 Chair: Ronald Cohen, Ph.D. Major Department: Anthropology This study examines ethnic identity and inter-ethnic contact in Malindi, Kenya. The particular focus of this study is the effect of high levels of ethnic diversity on the formation of new identities in Malindi. Specifically, the effect of high levels of ethnic diversity and inter-ethnic contact on the formation and development of Kenyan national identity The diversity present in Malindi is both caused and compounded by the seasonal presence of relatively large numbers of American and European tourists. Therefore, an examination of the dynamics of tourism and the effect of tourist contact on ethnic identities within the local community is included. vi It is hypothesized that individuals experiencing high levels of inter-ethnic contact, both with foreign tourists and indigenous people, are more likely to express feelings of national identity. The operationalization of this concept includes an extension of rights and privileges to Kenyans, regardless of ethnicity, and the exclusion of outsiders from sharing in those rights. A social distance scale and an index of Kenyan national identity were constructed to measure variation in response to both measures. Differences in the determination of ethnic distance and identity among different members of the community were analyzed in relation to a series of key variables which were hypothesized to affect the formation and maintenance of ethnic boundaries. Ethnographic data provided information about community perceptions of multi-ethnicity and the norms of behavior which result. Ethnic stereotypes were compared to actual behavior by members of several ethnic groups toward others. vii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Preface On the evening of August 7, 1992, I was sitting with friends at the Zanze-Bar Jazz Club, a very popular after hours spot in downtown Nairobi. At one point in the evening, the usual fare of live and recorded jazz music stopped and the attention of everyone in the house was drawn to several television sets strategically placed around the large room. The televisions were tuned to the local broadcast of the Barcelona Olympics. Three Kenyans were about to compete in the 3,000 meter steeple-chase. As the competition got under way, the noise and excitement level in the room increased steadily as, with each passing lap, it became increasingly apparent that the three Kenyans were the class of the field. As the three Kenyans crossed the finish line far ahead of the other competitors, wild cheers of "one, two, three!" and "gold, silver, bronze!" could be heard from a ll around the room along with slaps on the back, handshakes, toasts (of course) and the occasional shrieks from some female members of the audience. It was at this moment that it occurred to me that I was witnessing (and participating in) a process that had drawn me to Kenya to do research in the first place, the expression l 2 of national unity and national identity that, for a brief second, at least, overcame ethnic identity. This phenomenon was especially poignant, for me at least, because it was happening in Nairobi with a largely Kikuyu audience cheering wildly for three Kalenjin athletes. Barely two months earlier, several Kalenjin were murdered gratuitously on the streets of Nairobi by Kikuyu mobs seeking vengeance for the death of several Kikuyus and the displacement of dozens more following the "ethnic clashes" that had recently terrorized Rift Valley residents. Granted, the crowd at the Zanze-bar (a clearly "yuppie" establishment) were light years away from the mobs that stoned Kalenjins to death in Eastleigh and on River Road. Yet, the sentiments of anger and frustration at the "ethnic clashes" and the resentment harbored by the Kikuyu community, and other communities, toward the apparently political nature of the clashes and, for several other reasons, toward this particular ethnic group, were felt among all circles of the community, as witnessed by newspaper editorials and my own conversations with a number of Kikuyus. So, why were these people suddenly and enthusiastically going wild over these Kalenjin athletes. The answer, I reflected, could be found in the fact that for at least this particular moment the three athletes were not Kalenjins and the audience was not Kikuyu. The victory had been won over athletes from several countries and had been broadcast to and 3 seen by millions all around the world. As the three athletes made their victory lap holding high three large Kenyan flags, the pride beaming from the faces of the people at Zanze-Bar was not a pride in being Kikuyu, or Luo or Swahili, but in being Kenyan. Whether this momentary solidarity is transferable to the streets, the home, or the work place, I do not know, but, at least for a brief moment, I'm sure it was felt everywhere, even in Eastleigh. The title of this dissertation, "The Brotherhood of Coconuts" is taken from the Swahili proverb "Undugu wa nazi hukutani chunguni" which means, "the brotherhood of coconuts is formed in the pot." 1 Like most Swahili "methali" this proverb has a number of possible meanings. I interpret it in two ways; that different self-contained entities unite under stressful conditions, the heat of the pot. This unity of different entities is artificial being brought about by the action of placing them together in the pot, but also permanent. Another interpretation is analogous to the American aphorism "in order to make eggs, you have to break some shells." For the Swahili proverb, one can say that once the coconuts are opened and the contents placed in the pot, you cannot tell the difference between the formerly unique individuals. In the emotional hot-pot of national pride and 1 I was first made aware of this proverb after reading "The Way the World Is: Cultural Processes and Social Relations among the Mombasa Swahili." by Professor Marc Swartz (1991, University of California Publishing) . The proverb is used as a title of one of Professor Swartz's chapters in that book. " 4 international competition, the audience at Zanze-Bar formed, at least for an instant, a common bubbling Kenyan broth. I wish to adapt this "methali" somewhat in my discussion of ethnicity and social change in Malindi in order to fit this very old East African proverb into the nomenclature of twentieth century western intellectual tradition by suggesting that "the brotherhood of coconuts is formed in the melting-pot. This dissertation is about inter-ethnic relationships and the dynamics that determine those relationships in a multi- ethnic developing African state. It is also about the social and cultural changes that accompany and, in some instances, catalyze interethnic relationships, setting conflict, change, and the emergence