Of Nature and People: Community-Based Natural Resource Management and Land Restitution at Makuleke by Francois Johannes Louw Thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Social Anthropology at the University of Stellenbosch Supervisor: Prof Kees van der Waal Social Anthropology Department Sociology and Social Anthropology December 2010 Declaration By submitting this thesis electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work contained therein is my own, original work, that I am the owner of the copyright thereof (unless to the extent explicitly otherwise stated) and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it for obtaining any qualification. Date: 28 October 2010 Copyright © 2010 Stellenbosch University All rights reserved 1 Afrikaanse Opsomming Oor Natuur en Mense: Gemeenskapsgebaseerde Natuurlike Hulpronbestuur en Grondhervorming te Makuleke Hierdie tesis is ‘n verkenning van hoe ‘n nuwe ontwikkelingskultuur gekweek is aan die einde van die 20ste eeu deur die ‘krisis van ontwikkeling’ en die noodsaaklikheid om verligting te bring aan verarmde gemeenskappe op ‘n omgewings-volhoubare wyse. Ek lig die beperkings en kerngeleenthede tot volhoubare ontwikkeling en Gemeenskaps-Gebaseerde Natuurlike Hulpbronbestuur uit wat in grondhervormingseise in bewaringsgebiede in Suid-Afrika na vore gekom het. Ek kyk na hoe die historiese sosio-politiese erflating rolspelers posisioneer en verhoudings en interaksies tussen hulle beïnvloed, hoe die huidige natuur-toerisme industrie tot die nadeel van sommige en voordeel van sekere ander rolspelers werk in terme van die verkryging van ekonomiese sukses en uiteindelik hoe hierdie twee faktore bewarings-gebaseerde GBNHB beïnvloed. Ek bestudeer drie gevallestudies, naamlik die Inboorling-gemeenskap in die Kakadu Nasionale Park, die Khomani San in die Kalahari Gemsbok Nasionale Park en die Makuleke in die Nasionale Kruger -Wildtuin. Analise lei my tot spesifieke gevolgtrekkings: die nagevolge van rasse-segregasie-beleid plaas gemeenskapsakteurs in ‘n benadeelde posisie wanneer hulle in interaksie is met hulle vennote; die spesifieke dinamika van die toerisme-industrie bedreig die sukses van GBNHB projekte omdat die verwagte noemenswaardige voordele nie altyd gewaarborg kan word nie; en die gebrek aan effektiewe plaaslike bestuur belemmer volhoubare ontwikkeling op gemeenskapsvlak. KERNWOORDE: Ontwikkeling, volhoubare ontwikkeling, Gemeenskap-Gebaseerde Natuurlike Hulpbronbestuur, grondhervorming, bewaring, Makuleke, Nasionale Kruger-Wildtuin. 2 English Abstract Of Nature and People: Community-Based Natural Resource Management and Land Restitution at Makuleke This thesis is an exploration of how a new development culture has been cultivated at the end of the 20th century in reaction to the ‘crisis of development’ and the need to bring relief to impoverished communities in an environmentally sustainable manner. I uncover the key constraints on and opportunities for sustainable development and Community-Based Natural Resource Management that have emerged in land restitution claims in conservation areas in South Africa. I look at how inherited socio-political pasts poise actors and influence the relationships and interactions between them, how the current nature-tourism industry works to the detriment of some and the benefit of other actors in terms of gaining economic success and ultimately how these two factors influence conservation-based CBNRM projects. I examine three cases, namely: the Aboriginal community in Kakadu National Park, the Khomani San in the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park and the Makuleke in Kruger National Park. Through this examination I draw specific conclusions: the repercussions of racial segregation policies puts community actors at a disadvantage when engaging with their partners; specific dynamics of the tourism industry threatens the success of CBNRM projects because the expected substantial benefits are not always guaranteed; and the lack of sound local governance impedes sustainable development at community-level. KEY WORDS: Development, sustainable development, Community-Based Natural Resource Management, land restitution, conservation, Makuleke, Kruger National Park. 3 Acronyms ALRA - Aboriginal Land Rights Act ANC – African National Congress BOT – Built-Operate-Transfer BTC – Belgian Technical Cooperation CAMPFIRE - Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources CARE - Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere CBNRM – Community-Based Natural Resource Management CBO – Community-Based Organisation CLARA - Communal Land Rights Act CPA – Community Property Association DLA – South African Department of Land Affairs EPBC - Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act GLTP - Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park GTZ - Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit Ha - Hectare ICT- Information Communication Technology IGA – Income-Generating Activity JMB – Joint Management Board KGNP – Kalahari Gemsbok National Park KNP – Kruger National Park MCC&H – Makuleke Community Centre and Homestay MEC - Member of the Executive Council NAPC - National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act NGO – Non-governmental Organisation NPB – National Parks Board PHASA - Professional Hunting Association of South Africa PLAAS - Programme for Land and Agrarian Studies LRC - Legal Resource Centre RDP – Reconstruction and Development Programme RLCC - Regional Land Claims Commission SANParks – South African National Parks SASI – South African San Institute SDC - Swiss Agency for Development and Corporation TCA – Transfrontier Conservation Areas UNIDO - United Nations Industrial Development Organization WWF – World Wildlife Foundation 4 Table of Contents AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING ........................................................................................................................... 2 ENGLISH ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................................... 3 ACRONYMS ......................................................................................................................................................... 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................................................... 5 LIST OF PICTURES ........................................................................................................................................... 7 LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................................................. 8 LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................................................ 8 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................... 10 1.1 SCOPE OF THE STUDY ........................................................................................................................... 10 1.2 METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................................................................... 13 1.3 ORGANISATION OF THE STUDY ......................................................................................................... 17 CHAPTER 2: FROM THE GOLDEN TO THE GREEN ERA ..................................................................... 18 2.1 ENVIRONMENTAL CRITIQUES OF THE CONVENTIONAL MODEL OF DEVELOPMENT........... 19 2.2. GREENING DEVELOPMENT: CULTIVATING A NEW DEVELOPMENT CULTURE AND THE NOTION OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT .......................................................................................... 24 2.3. CBNRM: INTEGRATING CONSERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT................................................. 30 2.3.1 Shifting power from the elite to the disenfranchised: Defining CBNRM ............................................ 31 2.3.2. The tourism economy: Private conservation and land reform setting the precedent for CBNRM in South Africa ................................................................................................................................................. 33 2.3.3 An analytical framework for unearthing CBNRM issues in land reform ............................................ 37 2.4 CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................................................... 46 CHAPTER 3: LAND REFORM AND CBNRM IN TWO COUNTRIES WITH TWO DIFFERENT OUTCOMES ....................................................................................................................................................... 48 3.1. LAND REFORM IN AUSTRALIA AND SOUTH AFRICA .................................................................... 48 3.2 AUSTRALIA: ABORIGINAL LAND RIGHTS AT KAKADU NATIONAL PARK ............................... 53 3.2.1 Background ......................................................................................................................................... 54 3.2.2 Joint Management at Kakadu ............................................................................................................. 55 3.2.3 Project complexities and issues .......................................................................................................... 58 3.2.4 Conclusion .........................................................................................................................................