Manji 1 Anime’s Atomic Legacy: Takashi Murakami, Miyazaki, Anno, and the Negotiation of Japanese War Memory A thesis Age submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in English in the University of Canterbury by Rufus C. Manji University of Canterbury 2020 Manji 2 Contents Table of Contents 1. Anime’s Atomic Legacy: Takashi Murakami, Miyazaki, Anno, and the Negotiation of Japanese War Memory ........................................................................................ 1 1.1. Contents ........................................................................................................................ 2 1.2. Abstract ......................................................................................................................... 4 1.3. Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................... 6 2. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 7 3. Chapter 1: Superflat, Subculture, and National Trauma .........................................13 3.1. Takashi Murakami and superflat ................................................................................. 14 3.1.1. A genealogy of superflat subculture ........................................................................................ 20 3.1.2. Framing JNP: Japan’s Postmodern Condition ....................................................................... 32 3.1.3. The Database & Animalisation .................................................................................................. 40 3.1.4. Superflat and National Cinema ............................................................................................... 43 3.1.5. Trauma Theory........................................................................................................................... 49 3.1.6. Atomic Trauma in Mainstream Japanese Cinema ................................................................ 51 3.1.7. The Subcultural Split from Mainstream Cinema .................................................................. 56 4. Chapter 2: National Identity and Perpetrator Trauma in Anime Subculture...........59 4.1. National Identity & Perpetrator Trauma ..................................................................... 61 4.2. Miyazaki and Anno: Negotiating Historical Memory .................................................. 78 5. Chapter 3: Hayao Miyazaki ......................................................................................88 5.1.1. Murakami on Miyazaki............................................................................................................. 92 5.1.2. Troubling Parental Figures: the Perpetrator Fathers and Earth Mothers ........................ 104 5.2. The Economic Miracle: 1978-1989 ............................................................................ 106 5.2.1. Miyazaki’s Early Apocalyptic Narratives ............................................................................ 106 5.2.2. Future Boy Conan: Trauma, Nature, and Industry ............................................................... 109 5.2.3. The Return of the Repressed: Conan’s Trauma Narratives and the Perpetrator Fathers .................................................................................................................................................... 114 5.2.4. Becoming the Perpetrator: Monsley and Intergenerational Trauma ............................... 118 5.2.5. The Grand Narrative Preserved ............................................................................................ 122 5.3. The Lost Decade: Miyazaki’s Nihilism and the Decline of Grand Narratives ............. 125 5.3.1. Fragmented Identity and Survivor Guilt in Porco Rosso .................................................... 130 5.3.2. Complicity and Withdrawal in Howl’s Moving Castle ......................................................... 132 6. Chapter 4: Hideaki Anno ....................................................................................... 140 6.1.1. Anno’s goals as artist .............................................................................................................. 145 6.1.2. Interior Perspective and Hyperlimited Animation ............................................................. 150 6.2. The Economic Miracle: Gunbuster as Nationalist Fantasy ........................................ 158 6.2.1. The New Japanese Empire and Nationalist Nostalgia ....................................................... 161 Manji 3 6.3. Anno’s Turning Point: Fascism and Technological Ambivalence in Nadia ................ 167 6.3.1. Nemo and Gargoyle: Reconciliation with the Perpetrator Fathers .................................. 169 6.4. The Lost Decade: Evangelion, Withdrawal, and the Decline of Grand Narratives .... 174 6.4.1. The Decline of Scientific Optimism ....................................................................................... 180 7. Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 185 7.1. Works Cited ............................................................................................................... 189 7.1.1. Reference Texts ......................................................................................................................... 189 7.1.2. Films & Artistic Works ............................................................................................................ 194 Manji 4 Abstract This thesis explores the cultural commentary by Japanese Neo-Pop artist Takashi Murakami in relation to Japan’s war memory and its legacy in popular culture, addressing in particular the essays accompanying his 2005 exhibition Little Boy: The Arts of Japan’s Exploding Subculture. Murakami constructs a genealogy of postwar otaku subculture— anime, manga, tokusatsu, and video games—which he sees as reflecting anxieties repressed within mainstream culture: namely, memory of defeat, occupation, and ongoing military protection by the United States, epitomised by the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. These concerns become intertwined with the social malaise of Japan’s “Lost Decades”, in which postwar narratives of endless economic growth through scientific innovation give way to nihilism and social withdrawal. While anime of the “Economic Miracle” period show empowered heroes overcoming apocalyptic trauma through technology and righteous ideals, those of the 1990s frustrate such heroism: as scientific optimism deteriorates, protagonists are forced to question their beliefs, affiliations, and self-definition. While Murakami offers a wealth of socio-historical insights, clear limitations emerge, particularly the immediate post-Occupation release of films and artworks depicting the war and the atomic bomb, which challenges the notion that these topics were repressed exclusively into subculture. Furthermore, critics have argued the emphasis on Japan’s defeat and the hardships faced by civilians downplays the broader history of the Japanese Empire and its wartime activities abroad, a tendency Carol Gluck terms “victim’s history”. This thesis proposes a revision of Murakami’s theory which argues that memory of Japan as perpetrator emerges subliminally in subcultural narratives alongside memory of victimhood. Drawing on Hashimoto’s, LaCapra’s, and Elsaesser’s insights on the transmission of perpetrator memory, I argue that many of anime’s most iconic Sci-Fi and fantasy narratives are rooted in ambivalence towards national history, with heroes forced to identify Manji 5 simultaneously with hero, victim, and perpetrator roles. I focus on directors Hayao Miyazaki and Hideaki Anno, identifying the recurring motif of the “perpetrator fathers” whose legacy young heroes must overcome, while at the same time experiencing a traumatic identification with their father figures. These narratives complicate questions of national identity, reflecting a simultaneous desire to escape from, and redeem, historical memory. Manji 6 Acknowledgements This thesis would not have been possible without the continued support of my teachers and colleagues at the University of Canterbury Cinema Studies Department and, more broadly, the College of Arts. A special gratitude is due to my supervisor, Dr. Alan Wright, whose insightful advice and infinite patience kept me on track throughout the long thesis journey. This period also marked my first foray behind the lecture podium, where I confirmed Feynman’s maxim that teaching a topic really is the best way to learn it. Special thanks are due to Dr. Mary Wiles, and again to Dr. Wright, for guiding me through the early days of my teaching career. The skills I acquired here will serve me (and my students) for many years to come. I must also thank my forebears in the field of Japanese subcultural studies: research in this area has blossomed in recent decades, and it is on account of prior contributions that I have been able to pursue these topics in such depth. A special mention goes to the essayist Gwern Bran­wen, whose sprawling catalogue first introduced me to Takashi Murakami, the kernel from which my research would ultimately spring. Finally, I would like to thank my parents and extended family, without whose ongoing support and encouragement this thesis could not have been completed. Manji 7 Introduction In May 1945, at a meeting of the American