ENERGY AND EQUITY REVISITED: Examining local approaches to energy justice through community renewables development in Wales Alister Forman Presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2020 School of Geography and Planning Cardiff University Abstract Whilst calls for energy justice have grown, fleeting attention has been paid to the role and agency of the very people at the heart of this agenda. Most understandings of energy justice embrace the 'triumvirate of tenets', encompassing distributive, recognition, and procedural justice. But, despite this promising start, energy justice research has engaged little with community-scale and participatory approaches to the enactment of energy justice on the ground. The concepts and practices of ‘community renewable energy’ present one such arena within which energy justice might be enacted at a local level in a bottom-up approach. However, existing research on community renewables tends to assume, or provide largely anecdotal evidence for, the benefits and outcomes associated with such projects, whilst the nature of community renewables as an ongoing, temporal process is poorly understood. These are important issues to understand from the perspective of justice. This thesis aims to examine the complex, differential ways that community renewables are implicated in negotiating greater social justice within and beyond the energy sector. In turn, it seeks to understand the relevance and consequences of these issues for dominant perspectives on energy justice. It does so by mobilising a cross-sectoral, qualitative analysis of the community renewables sector in Wales. Findings show community renewables are highly relevant for improving access to pro-justice outcomes, such as through acting on the impacts of austerity, improving local economic opportunities, and promoting environmentalism and stewardship of natural resources. They also reveal novel insights on community renewables as an ongoing, temporal process which does not simply end after a project is developed. Moreover, it shows that key approaches to energy justice are intellectually ill- equipped to account for the relevance of issues beyond the energy system as potential drivers or outcomes of energy actions. A broader approach to energy justice is thus required. ii Declaration and Statements DECLARATION This thesis is the result of my own independent work, except where otherwise stated, and the views expressed are my own. Other sources are acknowledged by explicit references. The thesis has not been edited by a third party beyond what is permitted by Cardiff University's Use of Third Party Editors by Research Degree Students Procedure. Signed: ALISTER FORMAN Date: 15/06/20 STATEMENT 1 This thesis is being submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Signed: ALISTER FORMAN Date: 15/06/20 STATEMENT 2 This work has not been submitted in substance for any other degree or award at this or any other university or place of learning, nor is it being submitted concurrently for any other degree or award (outside of any formal collaboration agreement between the University and a partner organisation). Signed: ALISTER FORMAN Date: 15/06/20 STATEMENT 3 I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available in the University’s Open Access repository (or, where approved, to be available in the University's library and for inter-library loan), and for the title and summary to be made available to outside organisations, subject to the expiry of a University-approved bar on access if applicable. Signed: ALISTER FORMAN Date: 15/06/20 iii Acknowledgments In complete openness, when I started this journey in 2013, I had no inkling whatsoever that its culmination would fall amidst the start of a new decade. That it has is a reflection of all the many things, both good and ‘less-good’, that have happened in the intervening period, as well as the commitment of some really fantastic people to help me reach this point. To start, I owe a debt of gratitude to my research participants the length and breadth of Wales. You welcomed me into your communities and spared me your precious time. ‘As this research shows…’, your time is a valuable commodity, and for that, I am very grateful. My parents – Mum, Mike, Dad and Ellen – thank you for all the love and support. I owe it to my Mum that I have come to this point, as you instilled in me that education was so important (even if you fibbed about going to university in order to do so). To my lead supervisor, Professor Richard Cowell, I cannot thank you enough for your sheer force of will and perseverance to help me see this through. Your insights are always immeasurably helpful and, above all, your optimism helped me get to the end. I also thank Dr Ria Dunkley and Dr Alex Franklin, for settling me into PLACE and for being encouraging of my ideas early on. Dr Oleg Golubchikov provided valuable challenge along the way. The Welsh Government and Economic and Social Research Council helped to fund this research, and I am incredibly grateful for what felt like the once in a lifetime opportunity to work at the cutting edge of research and policy. I thank Professors Alison Phipps and Rebecca Kay at the University of Glasgow for showing me the value of participative methods, as well as for injecting some ‘critical perspectives’. There are so many friends to thank, and you have all helped me get to this point. Above all, I need to thank Jill Pirrie, whose friendship and laughter is sorely missed. This is for you. Finally, a special thanks to Francesca Gillett, who I am so grateful to have met when I started this journey in 2013. You have been at my side supporting and encouraging me every single step of the way and I cannot thank you enough. From that kerb in Kishiwada to where we are now, who would have thought it? I hope that I can support you even half as much as you have done for me. iv For Jill v Contents ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................. II DECLARATION AND STATEMENTS ............................................................................................. III ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................................... IV CONTENTS ................................................................................................................................ VI LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................ IX LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................... X LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................................... XI 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 1 1.1 ENERGY JUSTICE AT THE END OF THE WIRE ....................................................................... 1 1.2 COMMUNITY RENEWABLES AND LOCAL APPROACHES TO ENERGY ................................... 2 1.3 SETTING THE EMPIRICAL SCENE: CRE IN A SUB-NATIONAL CONTEXT ................................. 4 1.4 WORKING WITH THE WELSH GOVERNMENT ..................................................................... 5 1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ...................................................................................................... 7 1.6 TERMS OF REFERENCE ....................................................................................................... 9 1.7 THESIS STRUCTURE ......................................................................................................... 10 2 CRITICAL LITERATURE REVIEW: THE ROLE OF COMMUNITY RENEWABLE ENERGY IN NEGOTIATING SOCIAL JUSTICE ............................ 12 2.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 12 2.2 UNPACKING ENERGY JUSTICE .......................................................................................... 13 2.2.1 BACKGROUND AND EMERGENCE OF ENERGY JUSTICE CONCEPTS ....................................................... 13 2.2.2 APPROACHES TO ENERGY JUSTICE: KEY FRAMEWORKS AND ISSUES ................................................... 18 2.3 FUEL POVERTY AS INJUSTICE ........................................................................................... 24 2.3.1 UNDERSTANDING FUEL POVERTY ................................................................................................ 24 2.3.2 TRACING THE DEPTH AND IMPACTS OF FUEL POVERTY IN THE UK .................................................... 29 2.3.3 PATHWAYS FOR ADDRESSING FUEL POVERTY ................................................................................. 32 2.4 UNDERSTANDING COMMUNITY RENEWABLE ENERGY .................................................... 35 2.4.1 TRACING THE EMERGENCE OF LOCAL APPROACHES TO ENERGY GENERATION ...................................... 37 2.4.2 TRENDS IN CRE DEVELOPMENT IN THE UK ................................................................................... 40 2.4.3 IMPLEMENTING COMMUNITY RENEWABLE ENERGY IN PRACTICE ....................................................... 42 2.4.4 ASPIRATIONS FOR COMMUNITY RENEWABLES IN THE UK AND BEYOND ............................................. 45 2.4.5 JUSTICE, EQUITY AND COMMUNITY RENEWABLES .........................................................................