ECOLOGICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF DIVE AND SNORKEL TOURISM IN ST. LUCIA, WEST INDIES Nola H. L. Barker Thesis submittedfor the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Environmental Science Environment Department University of York August 2003 Abstract Coral reefsprovide many servicesand are a valuableresource, particularly for tourism, yet they are suffering significant degradationand pollution worldwide. To managereef tourism effectively a greaterunderstanding is neededof reef ecological processesand the impactsthat tourist activities haveon them. This study explores the impact of divers and snorkelerson the reefs of St. Lucia, West Indies, and how the reef environmentaffects tourists' perceptionsand experiencesof them. Observationsof divers and snorkelersrevealed that their impact on the reefs followed certainpatterns and could be predictedfrom individuals', site and dive characteristics.Camera use, night diving and shorediving were correlatedwith higher levels of diver damage.Briefings by dive leadersalone did not reducetourist contactswith the reef but interventiondid. Interviewswith tourists revealedthat many choseto visit St. Lucia becauseof its marineprotected area. Certain site attributes,especially marine life, affectedtourists' experiencesand overall enjoyment of reefs.Tourists were not alwaysable to correctly ascertainabundance of marine life or sedimentpollution but they were sensitiveto, and disliked seeingdamaged coral, poor underwatervisibility, garbageand other tourists damagingthe reef. Some tourists found sitesto be noisy and over-crowdedboth with peopleand boats. Many touristswanted more information on local marinelife and said they would be willing to pay more to visit siteswithin St. Lucia's marineprotected area than was currently being asked. Suchfunds could enablebetter protection and managementof St. Lucia's reefs. Managementrecommendations include, amongothers, that all visitors be supervisedon their dive and snorkeltrips, that reef usebe more evenly distributed throughoutthe island and that restrictionsbe placedon the numberof peopleallowed to use sitesover a given period. This thesisdemonstrates how countriescould use visitors to fund a greaterproportion of their reef managementcosts, and that various managementstrategies could contain andreduce tourism damageto reefs,whilst simultaneouslyaccommodating an expansionin the reef-tourismindustry. Table of contents Abstract Table of contents List of tables v List of figures vii Acknowledgments ix Declaration x Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 References 5 Chapter 2 Scuba diver behaviour and the managementof diving impacts 8 on coral reefs 2.1 Abstract 8 2.2 Introduction 8 2.3 Methods 13 2.3.1 Study site and diver samples 13 2.3.2 Dive sites 13 2.3.3 Factorsrecorded 15 2.3.4 Statisticalanalyses 18 2.3.5 Constraintsof methodsused 21 2.4 Results 23 2.4.1 Diver characteristics 23 2.4.2 Dive site characteristicsand diver behaviourunderwater 26 2.4.3 Effect of dive leaderbriefing and interventionon diver 28 behaviourunderwater 2.4.4 Diver behaviourand influencing characteristics 30 2.4.5 Predictionof the likelihood of a diver causinga contact 39 2.4.6 Predictionof the likelihood of a diver breakingcoral 41 2.4.7 Predictingthe rate of contacts 45 2.4.8 Predictingthe rate of breakage 46 2.5 Discussion 49 2.6 References 55 Chapter 3 Snorkeler behaviour on coral reefs 60 3.1 Abstract 60 3.2 Introduction 61 3.3 Methods 64 3.4 Results 68 3.5 Discussion 74 3.6 References 77 ii Chapter 4 Economic benefits of coral reef tourism and maximising 82 the potential for tourists to fund management of marine protected areas 4.1 Abstract 82 4.2 Introduction 83 4.3 Methods 87 4.4 Results 89 4.4.1 Visitor characteristics 89 4.4.2 Expenditure patterns 93 4.4.3 The SMMA and visitor's willingness to pay fees 96 4.4.4 Dive companies 103 4.5 Discussion 106 4.6 References 115 Chapter 5 Relationships betweentourist perceptions and measured 122 attributes of coral reefs 5.1 Abstract 122 5.2 Introduction 123 5.3 Methods 125 5.4 Results 129 5.4.1 Questionnaire1, Period 1 129 5.4.2 Questionnaire2, Period 1 150 5.4.3 Questionnaire3, Period2 157 5.5 Discussion 160 5.6 References 165 Chapter 6 Management of coral reef tourism 169 6.1 Abstract 169 6.2 Introduction 170 6.3 Managing coral reefs for tourism 170 6.3.1 Marine protected areas and carrying capacity estimates 170 6.3.2 Choosing the tourism market 172 6.3.3 Management options for reef tourism 174 6.4 The case study of St. Lucia 177 6.4.1 Management options for St. Lucia's reef-tourism 181 6.5 Conclusion 187 6.6 References 188 Chapter 7 General discussion 194 7.1 Predictingdamage to reefs 194 7.2 The socio-economicimpact of dive and snorkeltourism 196 7.3 Visitor perceptionsof reef attributes 197 7.4 Carrying capacitiesof St. Lucia's reefs 198 7.2 Conclusionand implicationsfor management 198 iii Appendices 200 Appendix A Questionnaire1 200 Appendix B Questionnaire2 202 Appendix C Questionnaire3 205 Appendix D Questionnaire4 207 Appendix E Contentof a typical dive briefing 211 Appendix F Kernel densityestimates for significant variables 212 usedin the logistic regression Appendix G Rangeof environmentalorganisations belonged to, 219 and materialread by visitors iv List of tables Chapter 2 Table 2.1 Dive sites and corresponding sample of divers observed ' 14 Table 2.2 Factors recorded for each dive during which a diver was observed 16 Table 2.3 Current rate classes 17 Table 2.4 Additional information gained from questioning divers observed 17 Table 2.5 Variables, their value and description used in the logistic and 20 multiple regression anaylses Table 2.6 Distribution of observed divers by country of residence 23 Table 2.7 Age and sex distribution of observed divers over the first sample 24 period Table 2.8 Sex, age and photographer status of divers 24 Table 2.9 Results of a Scheirer-Ray-Hare test on the effect of briefing and 29 intervention measuresby dive leaders on the contact rate of divers Table 2.10 Distribution of contact results between shore and boat dives 32 Table 2.11 Effect of diver intent on contact number and result 33 Table 2.12 Results of a logistic regression of influences on the probability of a 40 diver causing a contact during their dive Table 2.13 Results of a logistic regression of influences on the probability of a 41 diver breaking a coral during their dive Table 2.14 Correlation matrix for variables used in the logistic regressions 44 Table 2.15 Variables with significant influence on divers causing a contact 45 during their dive Table 2.16 Influencing variable on the rate of breakage by divers 46 Table 2.17 Correlation matrix for variables used in the multiple regression 48 Chapter 3 Table 3.1 Factorsrecorded during snorkelerobservations 66 Table 3.2 Independentvariables used in the logistic regressionfor 67 predicting whethera snorkelerwould havea contactor not during their snorkel Table 3.3 Resultsof a logistic regressionof influenceson the probability of a 73 snorkelercausing a contactwith the reef during their snorkel Table 3.4 Comparisonof contactsmade by divers and snorkelersat three 76 sites Chapter 4 Table 4.1 Numberof divesplanned by respondentsthat were diving in St. 92 Lucia Table 4.2 Percentageof divers and snorkelerstaking part in underwater 93 photographyand cameratype used V Table 4.3 Total cost of trip according to type of accommodation used in St. 94 Lucia Table 4.4 Total cost of trip per person classified by main purpose of visit 95 Table 4.5 Spending per person per day by main purpose of visit 95 Table 4.6 Income distribution of respondents 98 Table 4.7 Variables with significant influence on snorkelers' willingness to 100 pay Chapter 5 Table 5.1 Fish speciesidentified during counts 128 Table 5.2 Sitesused by the companyfor their dive and snorkel trips 129 Table 5.3 Percentageof answersgiven by divers to various attributesthat 150 would haveimproved their diving in St. Lucia Table 5.4 Visitors' top threemotivations for diving or snorkelingin St. Lucia 151 Table 5.5 The importanceof certainsite attributesto visitors 151 Table 5.6 Percentageof answersgiven by visitors on attributesthat they 152 enjoyedmost Table 5.7 Percentageof answersgiven by visitors on attributesthat reduced 153 their enjoymentof the marineenvironment of St. Lucia Table 5.8 Percentageof answersgiven by visitors on what would have 154 improvedtheir diving or snorkelingexperience Table 5.9 Percentageof answersgiven by visitors on attributesthat they 155 associatedwith the bestreef that they had ever visited Table 5.10 Percentageof answersgiven by visitors on attributesthat they 156 associatedwith the worst reef that they had ever visited Table 5.11 Visitors' medianperception scores for reef attributesat different 157 sites Table 5.12 Spearman'sRank Order Correlationtest resultsof visitor 158 perceptionscores of reef attributesversus measured data on the sameattributes Table 5.13 Spearman'sRank Order Correlationtest resultsfor divers' and 159 snorkelers'overall satisfactionscores versus perceived and measuredreef attributes Chapter 6 Table 6.1 Estimatesof carrying capacitiesfor coral reefs 171 Table 6.2 Distribution of dive site usein St. Lucia (year 2000) and 180 correspondingestimate of numberof dives doneat eachusing 2001 data Table 6.3 Potentialincreases in carrying capacityper site outsideof the 184 SMMA and their estimatedecological and economicimpacts Table 6.4 Options for managingSt. Lucia's reef tourism 186 vi List of figures Chapter 2 Figure 2.1 Location of the study site 11 Figure 2.2 Number of dives completed by