MOBILITY AND ECONOMY OF THE EVENKIS IN EASTERN SIBERIA by Karl Mertens A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Anthropology Boise State University December 2015 © 2015 Karl Mertens ALL RIGHTS RESERVED BOISE STATE UNIVERSITY GRADUATE COLLEGE DEFENSE COMMITTEE AND FINAL READING APPROVALS of the thesis submitted by Karl Mertens Thesis Title: Mobility and Economy of the Evenkis in Eastern Siberia Date of Final Oral Examination: 19 October 2012 The following individuals read and discussed the thesis submitted by student Karl Mertens, and they evaluated his presentation and response to questions during the final oral examination. They found that the student passed the final oral examination. John P. Ziker, Ph.D. Chair, Supervisory Committee Mark G. Plew, Ph.D. Member, Supervisory Committee David Nolin, Ph.D. Member, Supervisory Committee The final reading approval of the thesis was granted by John P. Ziker, Ph.D., Chair of the Supervisory Committee. The thesis was approved for the Graduate College by John R. Pelton, Ph.D., Dean of the Graduate College. DEDICATION This work is dedicated to the people of Erbogachën, Khamakar and the Kochëma who graciously took me in and shared their homes, tables and experiences with me. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There are many people who have made my graduate studies and this research possible. Dr. Wayne Allen first opened the idea that my interest in Siberia could be expanded. When I began the anthropology program, I did not fully understand what I was in for, but the experience has proven challenging and rewarding. Specifically, I am grateful for Dr. Plew’s demand for hard, simple questions; Dr. Hill’s passion for quantitative inquiry, Dr. House for his alternative views, Dr. Nolin’s help crunching the data, and most especially, I would like to thank Dr. John Ziker, who has helped and mentored me in so many ways I do not even know where to begin. Working in the Collaborative Governance in the Treasure Valley research project was immensely valuable. Thanks to Dr. Brian Wampler, Dr. Susan Mason, and Dr. John McClellan. In Siberia, I was assisted by several colleagues. My deepest gratitude to Nina Veisalova of the Irkutsk Native Peoples Association, and Dr. Artur Kharinski and Dr. Evegenii Inëshin of the Irkutsk State Polytechnic University for their very generous assistance. There were many people in Russia and the US who became my friends and helped me in various ways. Svetlana Sh, Natalia Z and Anna S; Valera G, Nikita S, Alla P, Olga K, and their families; Valeri K; Kamilla G and family; Elaine B and family and James, Jennifer and Sarah, lately of the Island. v BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF AUTHOR Mr. Mertens graduated from Minnesota State University in Mankato, Minnesota in 2008 with a Bachelor’s degree in Social Studies teaching with an emphasis in history. During undergraduate studies, he studied the Russian language at Gustavus Adolphus College in St. Peter, Minnesota, and Irkutsk State University. His language abilities, broad-based knowledge of the social sciences, and keen interest in indigenous Siberian cultures led to his application and acceptance into the graduate anthropology program at Boise State University. The unique opportunity to research with the Evenki of the Katanga Region of Eastern Siberia was made possible through the Home, Hearth, and Household Project, NSF grant #0631970 of Dr. John Ziker. vi ABSTRACT Mobility is an aspect of human activity that is highly contextual but also in need of a framework for comparative analysis through time and space. This thesis examines Evenki mobility patterns and how these patterns relate to the economic practices of hunting, fishing, and reindeer herding, and utilizes a framework for considering mobility cross-culturally. The Evenkis are an indigenous minority living throughout central and eastern Siberia in the Russian Federation. In the fall and winter of 2011/2012, fieldwork among two groups of Evenkis documented patterns of resource use, foraging, and mobility. One group lives in a village and disperses to the outlying area during the hunting and fishing seasons. The other group migrates year-round with their reindeer for hunting, trapping, fishing, and pasturage. Both groups are integrated into market and government systems through exchange of forest products for industrially produced goods, employment, taxes, and permitting. The information gathered through this research sheds light on contemporary indigenous mobility patterns connected to a variety of ecological, social, and economic factors. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION ......................................................................................................................... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................................... v BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF AUTHOR ........................................................................... vi ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................ vii LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................. xiv LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................ xv LIST OF MAPS ..................................................................................................................... xvi LIST OF PICTURES ............................................................................................................ xvii CHAPTER ONE: CONTEXT OF MOBILITY ........................................................................ 1 How and Why Do Foragers Move? .............................................................................. 1 Mobility in Context ....................................................................................................... 2 Literature Review.......................................................................................................... 6 Research Questions ..................................................................................................... 10 CHAPTER TWO: A BRIEF HISTORY OF EVENKIS AND SABLE ................................. 12 Katanga Region ........................................................................................................... 16 Climate of the Kochëma Region ................................................................................. 17 Geographic Characteristics of the Khamakar and Kochëma Regions ........................ 18 Tunguska River Near Khamakar .................................................................... 18 Verkhnaia Kochëma River Basin .................................................................... 19 viii Evenki Use and Relationship with Animal Species .................................................... 20 Sable ................................................................................................................ 20 Moose .............................................................................................................. 22 Reindeer .......................................................................................................... 23 Bear ................................................................................................................. 24 Wolverine ........................................................................................................ 24 Wolves ............................................................................................................ 25 Fish .................................................................................................................. 26 Small Game ..................................................................................................... 26 Plant Species ............................................................................................................... 27 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 29 CHAPTER FOUR: FIELD SETTING.................................................................................... 31 Khamakar Evenkis ...................................................................................................... 32 Verkhnaia Kochëma Evenkis ...................................................................................... 35 Kochëma – Kolia’s Household ................................................................................... 35 Kochëma – Dima’s Household ................................................................................... 36 CHAPTER FIVE: METHODS ............................................................................................... 37 Methods....................................................................................................................... 37 Time Allocation .......................................................................................................... 38 Mobility Data .............................................................................................................. 41 Maps ............................................................................................................................ 47 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 47 ix CHAPTER SIX: RESULTS ..................................................................................................