TURKEY AND THE BALKANS IN THE POST–COLD WAR ERA: DIPLOMATIC/ POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND MILITARY RELATIONS A Ph.D. Dissertation by DĐDEM EK ĐNC Đ Department of International Relations Bilkent University Ankara April 2009 To my late grandparents To my family And to the innocent victims of the war in Bosnia TURKEY AND THE BALKANS IN THE POST–COLD WAR ERA: DIPLOMATIC/ POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND MILITARY RELATIONS The Institute of Economics and Social Sciences of Bilkent University by DĐDEM EK ĐNC Đ In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in THE DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS BĐLKENT UNIVERSITY ANKARA April 2009 I certify that I have read this thesis and have found that it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality, as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in International Relations. Asst. Prof. Nur Bilge CRISS Supervisor I certify that I have read this thesis and have found that it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality, as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in International Relations. Assoc. Prof. Mark Padraig ALMOND Examining Committee Member I certify that I have read this thesis and have found that it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality, as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in International Relations. Asst. Prof. Pınar Đpek Examining Committee Member I certify that I have read this thesis and have found that it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality, as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in International Relations. Asst. Prof. Evgeni RADUSHEV Examining Committee Member I certify that I have read this thesis and have found that it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality, as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in International Relations. Prof. Dr. Tetsuya SAHARA Examining Committee Member I certify that I have read this thesis and have found that it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality, as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in International Relations. Prof. Dr. Erdal EREL Director ABSTRACT TURKEY AND THE BALKANS IN THE POST –COLD WAR ERA: DIPLOMATIC/ POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND MILITARY RELATIONS Ekinci, Didem Ph.D., Department of International Relations Supervisor: Asst. Prof. Nur Bilge Criss April 2009 This dissertation argues that as a region in which Turkey has been no stranger since the end of the 14 th century, the Balkans poses political, military, and economic significance for Turkey. Turkey has strong historical ties with the Balkans; the region is a strategic link between Turkey and Europe; Ankara is concerned that the Turkish minority in the region remain integrated in their host countries; and there is also a remarkable amount of Balkan immigrants in Turkey who are influential on Ankara’s Balkan policies. Therefore, Turkey’s engagement in the regional developments intensified after 1990. However, the intensity of relations lost momentum after 1995 due to more pressing domestic and foreign policy issues, causing a lack of strong cooperation network between political, military and economic fields. In this framework, the main research questions in this dissertation will be based on finding under what circumstances Turkey’s political, diplomatic, economic and military relations towards the region have been formulated after 1990 and whether (and how) these policies displayed continuity or disruptions became possible throughout. It argues that well-worked policies towards the region can be achieved if political, diplomatic, economic and military relations are treated evenly. Keywords: Balkans, Turkey, post-Cold War era, politics, diplomacy, economy, military, UN, NATO. iii ÖZET SO ĞUK SAVA Ş SONRASINDA TÜRK ĐYE VE BALKANLAR: DĐPLOMAT ĐK/S ĐYAS Đ, EKONOM ĐK VE ASKER Đ ĐLĐŞ KĐLER Ekinci, Didem Doktora, Uluslararası Đli şkiler Bölümü Tez Yöneticisi: Yrd. Doç. Dr. Nur Bilge Criss Nisan 2009 Bu tez, 14. yüzyıldan bu yana Türkiye’nin yabancısı olmadı ğı bir bölge olarak Balkanlar’ın, Türkiye açısından siyasi, askeri ve ekonomik önem arz etti ğini savunmaktadır. Türkiye’nin Balkanlar’la güçlü tarihi ba ğları bulunmaktadır; bölge, Türkiye ve Avrupa arasında stratejik bir ba ğ te şkil etmektedir; Ankara için bölgedeki Türk azınlı ğının bulundukları ülkelerde entegre bir biçimde ya şamaları önem ta şımaktadır; ayrıca Türkiye’de, Ankara’nın Balkan politikaları üzerinde etkili, önemli sayıda Balkan kökenli nüfus bulunmaktadır. Bu sebeplerden ötürü, 1990 sonrasında Türkiye bölge olaylarına daha fazla dahil olmaya ba şladı. Ancak, ili şkilerdeki yo ğunluk, daha acil cevap bekleyen iç ve dı ş politika konuları nedeniyle 1995 itibarıyla ivme kaybetmi ş, bu da siyasi, askeri ve ekonomik alanlar arasında güçlü bir i şbirli ği a ğı eksikli ğini beraberinde getirmi ştir. Bu çerçevede, bu tezdeki temel ara ştırma soruları, Türkiye’nin 1990 sonrasında bölgeye yönelik siyasi, diplomatik, ekonomik ve askeri politikalarının hangi ko şullarda formüle edildi ğini ve bu politikaların bir süreklilik mi sergiledi ği yoksa duraksamaların meydana gelip gelmedi ğini (ve bunların nasıl oluştu ğunu) bulmak temelinde olacaktır. Bölgeye yönelik iyi hazırlanmı ş politikaların; siyasi, diplomatik, ekonomik ve askeri ili şkilerin e şit derecede ele alınıp de ğerlendirilmesiyle elde edilebilece ği belirtilmektedir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Balkanlar, Türkiye, So ğuk Sava ş Sonrası dönem, siyaset, diplomasi, ekonomi, ordu, BM, NATO. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I take pleasure in recording my heartfelt gratitude to all those who were involved in the writing of this dissertation from the beginning until the end. My deepest gratitude is reserved for my supervisor Assoc. Prof. Nur Bilge Criss for her immeasurable academic guidance, knowledge, patience and encouragement throughout the dissertation. The most supportive and encouraging figure since my early Bilkent days, she provided the stimulus for my interest in the Balkans and encouraged me for further research in the field. I would like to thank Assoc. Prof. Gülgün Tuna who was my supervisor in the master’s program and the first two years of my Ph.D. studies, as well as Asst. Prof. Hasan Ünal who was my dissertation supervisor until March 2008. I owe special thanks to the dissertation committee members, Assoc. Prof. Mark Almond, Asst. Prof. Evgeni Radushev, Prof. Dr. Tetsuya Sahara and Asst. Prof. Pınar Đpek for examining my dissertation with diligence and participating in my oral defense exam with their valuable comments and thought-provoking suggestions. I feel obliged to express my gratitude to the Turkish Grand National Assembly library staff for the weeks-long assistance they provided me to access necessary sources as well as for the facilities they provided for extensive archive search. I should also mention Mr. Hasan Ulusoy at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in the Council of Europe Department as well as diplomats in the Balkans Department for their interest and time. v Due acknowledgment is to my friends at the university and abroad, to Mrs. Pınar Kılıçhan Şener, our Department secretary, and to Mrs. Kadriye Göksel, Secretary of Dean’s Office, for their moral support. Beyond everything, I would like to express my heartfelt appreciation to my family who was the true hero behind this project as they had to go through every painstaking phase of my Ph.D. studies as much as, and at times, even more than, I did. I am deeply grateful for my late grandparents who had been such supportive and encouraging figures before me even in the initial phases of my education life. It is for their inspirational guidance that has in the first place made me whatever I have become. Last, but not least, I would like to thank Sandy for his moral support, humorous spirit, and technical help during the typing of the dissertation. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT …………………………………………………………………… . iii ÖZET ……………………………………………………………………………. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ………………………………………………………. v TABLE OF CONTENTS ………………………………………………………. vii CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………... 1 CHAPTER II: TURKEY AND THE BALKANS: AN OVERVIEW ……………. 11 2.1. The Historical Backdrop: How Does Turkey Fit in The Balkans? …… 11 2.2. “(Re)Balkanization”: A Synonym for Instability? …………………… 14 2.3. New Direction in Turkish Foreign Policy in the Early 1990s: Activism …………………………………………………………………. 16 2.4. Prelude to Balkan Turmoil ………………………………………….. 20 2.5. A Short Travel in the Relations Between Turkey and the Balkans in the Post-Cold War Era ……………………………………………………….. 22 CHAPTER III: TURKEY AND THE BALKANS: FROM THE END OF THE GREAT WAR TO THE END OF THE COLD WAR …………………………. 31 3.1.Contours of Turkey’s Balkan Policy During the Interwar Period …….. 31 3.2. Episode I: Balkan Entente (1934) ……………………………………. 35 3.3. Efforts for Peace During World War II and the Balkans …………...... 41 3.4. Communism Enters the Scene ………………………………………. 43 vii 3.5. The Aftermath of World War II ……………………………………... 46 3.5.1. Episode II: Balkan Pact and Alliance ………. ……………. 46 3.5.2. On the Road to the Pact …………………………………… 49 3.5.2.1. Greek Efforts for Cooperation in the Mediterranean ……………………………………… 49 3.5.2.2. Turkish Efforts for Cooperation in the Mediterranean ………………………………………. 50 3.5.2.3. Western Support and Bilateral Contacts ................. 51 3.5.3. The Balkan Pact …………………………………................ 51 3.5.4. Balkan Alliance ……………………………………………. 53 3.5.5. The End of Episode II: Dissolution of the Balkan Alliance ... 54 3.5.6. Post-1955 Attempts For Cooperation in the Balkans ………. 56 3.5.6.1. The Stoica Plan ………………………................... 56 3.5.6.2. The 1970s ……………………………………….. 59 3.5.6.3. The 1980s ………………………………………... 59 CHAPTER IV: TURKEY’S DIPLOMATIC AND POLITICAL RELATIONS WITH THE BALKAN STATES IN THE POST-COLD WAR ERA ………………….. 62 4.1. The Disintegration of Yugoslavia and the War in Bosnia ................. 66 4.1.1. The War and Secret Arms Transfers …………………….... 68 4.2. Turkish Foreign Policy towards Bosnia - Herzegovina ....................... 77 4.2.1. Parliamentary Debates in the Years of War ………………… 79 4.2.2. Losing Momentum: The Post-1995 Period ………………. 112 4.3.Turkish Foreign Policy towards Serbia (and Montenegro) ………….