Notes Chapter 1 Introduction: Cyril Norwood and Secondary Education Notes to Pages 1–6 1. Emile Durkheim, The Evolution of Educational Thought: Lectures on the Formation and Development of Secondary Education in France (London, RKP, 1977), p. 8. 2. Ibid., p. 10. 3. Ibid., p. 13. 4. C. Wright Mills, The Sociological Imagination (London, Oxford University Press, 1959), p. 5. 5. Ibid., p. 6. 6. Ibid., p. 7. 7. Ibid. 8. R.J.W. Selleck, James Kay-Shuttleworth: Journey of an Outsider (London, Woburn, 1994), p. xiv. 9. J. Goodman and J. Martin, Women and Education, 1800–1980 (London, Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), p. 6. 10. G.C. Turner, “Norwood, Sir Cyril (1875–1956),” Dictionary of National Biography, 1951–1960, p. 773. 11. See also Gary McCulloch, “From Incorporation to Privatisation: Public and Private Secondary Education in Twentieth-Century England,” in Richard Aldrich (ed.), Public or Private Education?: Lessons from History (London, Woburn, 2004), pp. 53–72; Gary McCulloch, “Cyril Norwood and the English Tradition of Education,” Oxford Review of Education, 32/1 (2006), pp. 55–69; and Gary McCulloch, “Education and the Middle Classes: The Case of the English Grammar Schools, 1868–1944,” History of Education, 35/6 (2006), pp. 689–704. 12. John Graves, Policy and Progress in Secondary Education, 1902–1942 (London, Thomas Nelson, 1943), p. viii. 13. Olive Banks, Parity and Prestige in English Secondary Education: A Study in Educational Sociology (London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1955), p. 12. 14. Ibid., p. 239. 15. Ibid., p. 241. 16. Brian Simon, The Politics of Educational Reform, 1920–1940 (London, Lawrence and Wishart, 1974), p. 10. 17. Ibid. 18. Ibid., p. 318. 19. Ibid., p. 333. 160 Notes to Pages 6–12 20. Felicity Hunt, Gender and Policy in English Education: Schooling for Girls, 1902–44 (London, Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991). 21. Ibid., p. 1. 22. R.H. Tawney, Equality (London, George Allen and Unwin, 1931; 1964 edition), pp. 144–45. 23. Brian Simon, “The 1902 Education Act—A Wrong Turning,” History of Education Society Bulletin, 70 (2002), p. 74. 24. Mel Vlaeminke, “Supreme Achievement or Disastrous Package? The 1902 Act revisited,” History of Education Society Bulletin, 70 (2002), p. 76. 25. Ibid., p. 85. 26. Mel Vlaeminke, The English Higher Grade Schools: A Lost Opportunity (London, Woburn, 2000), p. 29. 27. Kevin Manton, Socialism and Education in Britain, 1883–1902 (London, Woburn, 2001), p. 197. 28. Vlaeminke, The English Higher Grade Schools, chapters 3 and 4. 29. Manton, Socialism and Education in Britain, esp. chapter 3. 30. See, e.g., Gary McCulloch, Educational Reconstruction: The 1944 Education Act and the Twenty-First Century (London, Woburn, 1994). 31. Board of Education, Curriculum and Examinations in Secondary Schools (Norwood Report) (London, HMSO, 1943), p. vii. 32. Ibid. 33. Ibid., p. viii. 34. Ibid., p. ix. 35. For example, Brian Simon, “The 1944 Education Act: A Conservative measure?” History of Education, 15/1 (1986), pp. 31–43; McCulloch, Educational Reconstruction, esp. chapters 4, 5. 36. For a recent assessment of the historical development of schools in the United States see William J. Reese, America’s Public Schools: From the Common School to “No Child Left Behind” (Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005). Chapter 2 Middle Class Education and the State 1. Fred Clarke, Education and Social Change: An English Interpretation (London, Sheldon Books, 1940), p. 10. 2. Ibid., p. 35. 3. For examples of a massive literature in this area, see Rupert Wilkinson, The Prefects: British Leadership and the Public School Tradition (London, Oxford University Press, 1964); J.R. de S. Honey, Tom Brown’s Universe: The Development of the Public School Community in the 19th Century (London, Millington Books, 1977); J.A. Mangan, Athleticism in the Victorian and Edwardian Public School (London, Falmer, 1986); Brian Simon, The Two Nations and the Educational Structure, 1780–1870 (London, Lawrence and Wishart, 1960); Brian Simon, The Politics of Educational Reform, 1920–1940 (London, Lawrence and Wishart, 1974). Two of my earlier works, Philosophers and Kings: Education for Leadership in Modern England (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1991) and Failing the Ordinary Child? The Theory and Practice of Working Class Secondary Education (Buckingham, Open University Press, 1998) explored these “elite” and “mass” traditions respectively. Notes to Pages 12–14 161 4. Peter Searby, “Foreword,” in P. Searby (ed.), Educating the Victorian Middle Class (Leicester, History of Education Society, 1982), p. vi. 5. See esp. W.E. Marsden, Unequal Educational Provision in England and Wales: The Nineteenth-Century Roots (London, Woburn, 1987); W.E. Marsden, Educating the Respectable: A Study of Fleet Road School, Hampstead, 1879–1903 (London, Woburn, 1991); David Reeder, “The Reconstruction of Secondary Education in England, 1869–1920,” in D. Muller, F. Ringer, and B. Simon (eds.), The Rise of the Modern Educational System: Structural Change and Social Reproduction 1870–1920 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1987), pp. 133–50. 6. Tawney, Equality, p. 64. 7. Ibid. 8. Joanna Bourke, Fear: A Cultural History (London, Virago, 2005), p. 27. 9. Burton J. Bledstein, “Introduction: Storytellers to the Middle Class,” in B.J. Bledstein and R.D. Johnston (eds.), The Middling Sorts: Explorations in the History of the America Middle Class (London, Routledge, 2001), p. 5. 10. Stanley Aronowitz, How Class Works: Power and Social Movement (New Haven, Yale University Press, 2003), p. 34. 11. Peter Gay, The Bourgeois Experience, Victoria to Freud, vol. 1, Education of the Senses (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1984), pp. 17, 67. 12. Mills, The Sociological Imagination, p. 5. 13. Vlaeminke, The English Higher Grade Schools; Manton, Socialism and Education. 14. A.H. Halsey, “The Relation between Education and Social Mobility with Reference to the Grammar School since 1944” (PhD thesis, University of London, 1954). 15. Felicity Hunt, “Social Class and the Grading of Schools: Realities in Girls’ Secondary Education, 1880–1940,” in June Purvis (ed.), The Education of Girls and Women (Leicester, History of Education Society, 1985), pp. 27–46. 16. Barry Blades, “Deacon’s School, Peterborough, 1902–1926: A study of the Social and Economic Function of Secondary Schooling” (PhD thesis, University of London, 2003). 17. F.M.L. Thompson, The Rise of Respectable Society: A Social History of Victorian Britain, 1830–1900 (London, Fontana, 1988) 18. Ross McKibbin, Classes and Cultures: England 1918–1951 (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 104. 19. See, e.g., Alan Kidd and David Nicholls (eds.), The Making of the British Middle Class? Studies of Regional and Cultural Diversity since the Eighteenth Century (Stroud, Sutton Publishing, 1998); and Alan Kidd and David Nicholls (eds.), Gender, Civic Culture and Consumerism: Middle Class Identity in Britain 1800–1940 (Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1999). 20. Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall, Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780–1950 (London, Hutchinson, 1987), pp. 28, 35. See also, e.g., R.J. Morris, “A Year in the Public Life of the British Bourgeoisie,” in Colls and Rodger (eds.), Cities of Ideas, pp. 121–43 21. Geoffrey Crossick, “From Gentlemen to the Residuum: Languages of Social Description in Victorian Britain,” in Penelope Corfield (ed.), Language, History and Class (London, Basil Blackwell, 1991), p. 173. 22. For example, Richard Trainor, “The Middle Class,” in Martin Daunton (ed.), The Cambridge Urban History of Britain, vol. III, 1840–1950 (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1991), pp. 673–713. 23. Fiona Devine and Mike Savage, “The Cultural Turn: Sociology and Class Analysis,” in Fiona Devine, Mike Savage, John Scott, and Rosemary Crompton (eds.), Rethinking Class: Culture, Identities and Lifestyles (London, Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), pp. 1–23; Beverley 162 Notes to Pages 14–20 Skeggs, Class, Self, Culture (London, Routledge, 2004). See also Diane Reay, “Thinking Class, Making Class,” British Journal of Sociology of Education, 26/1 (2005), pp. 139–45. 24. For example, Fiona Devine, Class Practices: How Parents Help Their Children to Good Good Jobs (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2004). See also Andy Furlong, “Making Middle Class Advantage,” British Journal of Sociology of Education, 26/5 (2005), pp. 683–85. 25. See, e.g., Michael Grenfell, Bourdieu and Education: Acts of Practical Theory (London, Falmer, 1998); and Nicholas Brown and Jane Szeman (eds.), Pierre Bourdieu: Fieldwork in Culture (Lenham, MA; Renman and Littlefield, 2000). 26. Sally Power et al, Education and the Middle Class (Buckingham, Open University Press, 2003). 27. Stephen Ball, Class Strategies and the Education Market: The Middle Classes and Social Advantage (London, Routledge Falmer, 2003), p. 2. 28. Ibid., p. 4. 29. Sally Tomlinson, Education in a Post-Welfare Society (2nd edition, Maidenhead, Open University Press, 2005), p. 173. 30. Report of Schools Inquiry Commission (Taunton Report) (1868), vol. I, pp. 15–16. 31. Ibid., pp. 17–18. 32. Ibid., p. 20. 33. Ibid., p. 44. 34. Report of a Conference on Secondary Education in England, October 10–11, 1893 (Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1893), p. 15. 35. Royal Commission on Secondary Education (1895) (Bryce Report), Part III, p. 136. 36. Ibid., p. 138. 37. See, e.g., Felicity Hunt, “Divided Aims: The Educational Implications of Opposing Ideologies in Girls’ Secondary Schooling, 1850–1940,” in Felicity Hunt (ed.), Lessons for Life: The Schooling of Girls and Women, 1850–1950 (London, Basil Blackwell, 1987), pp. 3–21; and A.M. Wolpe, “The Official Ideology of Education for Girls,” in M. Flude and J. Ahier (eds.), Educability, Schools and Ideology (London, Croom Helm), pp. 138–59. 38. Joyce Senders Pedersen, The Reform of Girls’ Secondary and Higher Education in Victorian England: A Study of Elites and Educational Change (London, Garland, 1987), chapter 9. 39. John Roach, Secondary Education in England 1870–1902: Public Activity and Private Enterprise (London, Routledge, 1991), p. 229. 40. Taunton Report, p. 18. 41. Matthew Arnold, “Schools and Universities on the Continent,” in R.H.