Social Education 77(2), pp 68–73 ©2013 National Council for the Social Studies The Economics of World History Why Didn’t China Discover the New World? Scott Wolla Mention China in any conversation and you are likely to hear a variety of concerns: up into a more global view. While this China’s growing economic and political power, the loss of American manufacturing is a necessary and positive change, some jobs due to trade with China, patent and copyright violations, and the level of U.S. social studies teachers may feel under- government debt held by China. prepared and hesitant to teach Eastern or Asian history. One way to overcome this hesitancy about broadening curriculum is to seek out a broader range of expertise. Economics Can Enliven a History Lesson The fields of history and economics Courtesy of Wikimedia Commons coexist in an environment of mutual respect and occasional encounters; unfortunately, truly interdisciplinary curricula in these fields are hard to come by. Economics can add an interesting dimension to history instruction. When teachers attempt to integrate economics into history instruction, they often do so by including a nation’s GDP or a discus- sion of the effects of inflation or poverty on political revolutions. While this is important, it only scratches the surface of what meaningful interdisciplinary social studies education can be. Teachers This modern model of Ming Dynasty treasure ships as compared to one of Columbus's ships was on display in the China Court of the Ibn Battuta Mall in Dubai, 2006. The purported size of the Ming can strengthen lessons by incorporating ships, however, is strongly disputed by maritime historians. economic reasoning into the context of history instruction. China surely warrants the attention in nearly everything, long before Western One of the basic assumptions of eco- it receives. But China also embodies nations dreamed of greatness. nomic reasoning is that people respond to many contradictions and some histori- The rise of China, as well as any of the incentives in predictable ways. Incentives cal reversals of fortune: For one, China emerging economies, has much to offer are perceived costs and benefits that is the world’s second-largest economy, students and teachers of social studies— encourage people to act. When incentives although it is still considered “emerg- especially in the fields of history and change, people’s choices and behaviors ing” or “less developed.” It is officially economics. Traditionally, history edu- change. Using this approach to teach his- communist, but has some of the most cation in the United States has empha- tory adds a new dimension to historical active markets in the world. To many sized Western civilization and provided understanding and a fresh way to intro- Americans, China seems to have only instruction for educators with that end in duce critical thinking into the social stud- recently risen to stardom on the world mind. In an era of increased globaliza- ies. China provides a wonderful merger stage. Yet, China was once a global leader tion, the Western emphasis is opening of surprising historical study and clear Social Education 68 economic lessons. But first, let’s address century; Chinese sailors were using them several hundred ships and thousands our country’s European perspective on in the first century. European sailors of soldiers. global exploration and discovery. incorporated multiple masts and sails in Zheng He earned great status for his the fourteenth century; the Chinese had efforts. Indeed, we are still talking about So, Who Discovered the New World? done so in the second century. Europeans his accomplishments today. In addition, When discussing the “discovery” of the implemented watertight compartments his emperor gained power, wealth, and New World, a few things must be made in ship hulls in the eighteenth century; the admiration of neighboring countries. clear: the Chinese used them beginning in the But what specific role did economics play second century. Europeans started using in these impressive expeditions? How 1. Native American populations were magnetic compasses in the twelfth cen- might economic incentives have encour- already living in the New World. tury; the Chinese were using them in the aged these endeavors? ninth century. All these technologies are 2. There is evidence that Vikings had important because they allowed crews Incentives Matter arrived in North America long to sail farther from land and more eas- China seemed to be on the road to before Columbus and his crew ily withstand storms at sea. Before these growth and prosperity, but the incen- bumped into the “New World” on advances, captains were hesitant to wan- tives suddenly changed. Government their way to the East. der too far from the safety of shore. So, power changed hands and policy changes in many ways, Chinese explorers were quickly followed, leading to a period of 3. While the term “discovered” is much more technologically prepared to isolationism that lasted for hundreds of generally not accurate, it should dominate the seas than explorers from years. After 1433, the Chinese govern- be acknowledged that the voy- Europe. ment launched no further naval expedi- ages of Columbus led to European tions. In 1436, the emperor forbade the knowledge of America and opened Enter Zheng He building of ships for overseas voyages. a way for a new age of exploration The third Chinese emperor of the Existing ships were left to rot. Forty and discovery. From the admittedly Ming dynasty, Yung-lo (1403–1425), years later, the government destroyed narrow perspective of Europe at the sent Zheng He, his chief envoy, on a the records of the voyages of Zheng He. time, he did “discover” America. To mission to “proceed all the way to the While Spanish and Portuguese explor- restate the issue: When we discuss ends of the earth to collect tribute from ers claimed lands of Central and South discovering the New World in this the barbarians beyond the seas.” These America, the Chinese withdrew from manner, we assume a European per- expeditions were an effort to make the the seas. Why didn’t China embrace spective—which many Americans country more prosperous and powerful, and sustain its technological superior- still do when interpreting history. but also to promote trade and collect ity? What led to China’s isolationism? There are some very understandable tribute from neighboring countries. His Here are several theories: reasons for this, foremost being the first expedition included over 300 ships cultural heritage of many of those with a crew of more than 28,000 men. • The spending of Yung-lo’s govern- who populated the United States His fleet included supply ships to carry ment greatly exceeded the tax revenue during its first 200 years, as well horses, troop transports, patrol boats, that could be collected. Although the as our current political, economic, warships, and tankers to carry fresh Chinese system of taxation was the and cultural ties to Europe. water. The largest ship in his fleet was most advanced in the world, even reported to be 400 feet long, with nine the emperor could not continue to Clearly, the study of history provides a masts and crew of over 1,000 men. This fund massive fleets on the scale of wider, global view from which we can see is a wonder when we consider the first those used by Zheng He. The tributes that European nations were not the only voyage of Columbus: three ships and a collected by the fleets also clearly active seafarers looking for trade routes. crew of about 90 men—the largest ship fell short of the amounts needed to In fact, Chinese explorers were in many being 85 feet long, with three masts and sustain their operation. ways better equipped to do this work and a crew of 40. During his seven expe- • Mongols began frequent attacks did so much earlier than their European ditions, Zheng He explored the coasts on China’s northern border. These counterparts. Much of the technology of faraway places, visited many ports, attacks may have forced China to that made European exploration possible and gained prestige for his accomplish- devote more resources to the defense in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries ments. Between 1405 and 1433 C.E., he of the border. had been used by Chinese sailors hun- led seven naval expeditions south and • Neo-Confucian scholars held many dreds of years earlier: European sailors west to India, Persia, Arabia, and Africa. important government posts. Neo- first used axial rudders in the twelfth Many of these expeditions included Confucian philosophy encouraged March / April 2 013 69 would have discovered the New World. We do know that after 1433, discovery stopped because the incentive structure as established by government policy did Copyright: ChinaStock © not encourage investment in overseas exploration. It was not only discour- aged, it was forbidden. Policies became increasingly inward looking and eventu- ally led to a withdrawal from the global economy. This may be a warning of how current policymakers might think about current trends in globalization. A nation can turn inward and protect its domestic industries and cut ties to the outside, or it can embrace a changing world and use trade to facilitate economic growth and interdependence. The lesson from Zheng He is to embrace the global economy and compete. Next, the story of Zheng He is a great way to discuss institutions—or, as econ- omists sometimes call them, the “rules of game.” Nobel Laureate Douglass North offers the following definition: “Institutions are the rules of the game in a society or, more formally, are the humanly devised constraints that shape human interaction.”1 Specifically, these institutions include society’s rules, cus- toms, and laws.