THE IMAGE OF A QUEEN: THE REPRESENTATION OF CATHERINE DE’ MEDICI AS PENELOPE IN THE GALERIE D’ULYSSE by ELIZABETH LEHMAN MILLER (Under the Direction of Shelley Zuraw) ABSTRACT This study explores the patronage and significance of the five sixteenth-century fresco scenes illustrating the reunion of Ulysses and Penelope designed by Francesco Primaticcio in the no longer extant Galerie d’Ulysse at Fontainebleau. Correlations are drawn between the imagery represented in the frescoes and two other works of art from Primaticcio’s oeuvre: the tomb of King Henri II and Queen Catherine de’ Medici of France and a painting titled Ulysses and Penelope in the Toledo Museum of Art. Also examined in relation to the frescoes are Catherine de’ Medici’s efforts to create a positive public image of herself as Regent of France following the death of Henri II. It is argued that Homer’s Penelope was a suitable mythological character with whom Catherine de’ Medici could identify; and that the Galerie d’Ulysse frescoes of Ulysses and Penelope were a means of public propaganda for the recently widowed queen- regent. INDEX WORDS: Galerie d’Ulysse, Francesco Primaticcio, Fontainebleau, King Henri II of France, Queen Catherine de’ Medici of France, Tomb, Ulysses, Penelope, Reunion THE IMAGE OF A QUEEN: THE REPRESENTATION OF CATHERINE DE’ MEDICI AS PENELOPE IN THE GALERIE D’ULYSSE by ELIZABETH LEHMAN MILLER B.A., The University of the South, 2004 A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of The University of Georgia in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree MASTER OF ARTS ATHENS, GEORGIA 2007 © 2007 Elizabeth Lehman Miller All Rights Reserved THE IMAGE OF A QUEEN: THE REPRESENTATION OF CATHERINE DE’ MEDICI AS PENELOPE IN THE GALERIE D’ULYSSE by ELIZABETH LEHMAN MILLER Major Professor: Shelley Zuraw Committee: Frances Van Keuren Alisa Luxenberg Electronic Version Approved: Maureen Grasso Dean of the Graduate School The University of Georgia December 2007 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF FIGURES.........................................................................................................................v CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………...…1 II. THE GALERIE D’ULYSSE: PATRONAGE, PROGRAM, AND SCENES OF ULYSSES AND PENELOPE’S REUNION……..…………………………...4 III. SORROW AND POWER: THE TOMB OF CATHERINE AND HENRI II…...22 IV. A MODERN ARTEMISIA: CATHERINE AS REGENT OF FRANCE........….28 V. THE IMAGE OF A WIDOWED QUEEN: THE REPRESENATION OF CATHERINE AS PENELOPE…………………………………………………..36 VI. CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………….....57 REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………………..64 APPENDIX A DIAGRAM OF THE VAULT AND WALL FRESCOES OF THE GALERIE D’ULYSSE…………………………………………………………..75 FIGURES………………………………………………………………………............………...77 iv LIST OF FIGURES Page Figure 1: Francesco Primaticcio, Ulysses and Penelope............................................................77 Figure 2: Theodoor Van Thulden, The Reunion of Ulysses and Penelope.................................78 Figure 3: Theodoor Van Thulden, Ulysses Escorting Penelope to their Marital Bed................78 Figure 4: Theodoor Van Thulden, Ulysses Recounting his Adventures to Penelope.................79 Figure 5: Theodoor Van Thulden, Ulysses Sleeping Next to Penelope......................................79 Figure 6: Theodoor Van Thulden, Minerva Waking Ulysses and Penelope...............................80 Figure 7: Nicolò dell’ Abate, Cupid and Psyche........................................................................80 Figure 8: Giulio Romano, Jupiter and Olympias………………………………………………81 Figure 9: Etienne Martellange, Northwest View of the Valois Chapel………………………...81 Figure 10: Alexandre Leblond, Valois Tomb……………………………………………………82 Figure 11: Jean Marot, Plan and View of North Side of Tomb of Henri II and Catherine de’ Medici…………………………………………………………………82 Figure 12: West and East Views of the Tomb of Henri II and Catherine de’ Medici…………..83 Figure 13: H. W. Brewer, Old St. Peter’s……………………………………………………….83 Figure 14: Antoine Caron, Finished Tomb of Mausolus………………………………………...84 Figure 15: Melian Relief, Return of Ulysses…………………………………………………….84 Figure 16: Ancient Roman Wall Painting, Ulysses and Penelope………………………………85 Figure 17: Franco-Flemish Tapestries, Ulysses and Penelope………………………………….85 Figure 18: Bernardino Pintoricchio, Penelope with the Suitors………………………………...86 Figure 19: Apollonio di Giovanni, Adventures of Ulysses……………………………………...86 Figure 20: François Clouet, Portrait of Henri II………………………………………………..87 v Figure 21: François Clouet, Portrait of Catherine de’ Medici………………………………….87 Figure 22: French School, Portrait of Diane de Poitiers……………………………………......88 Figure 23: Girolamo della Robbia, Catherine de’ Medici………………………………………88 Figure 24: Theodoor Van Thulden, Sleeping Ulysses is Transported into his Country………...89 Figure 25: Fragment of a Dying Meleager Sarcophagus………………………………………..89 Figure 26: Germain Pilon, Henri II and Catherine de’ Medici………………………………….90 Figure 27: Interior View from North Side of Henri II and Catherine Tomb…………………....91 Figure 28 a: “HD” and “HC” Ciphers……………………………………………………………...92 b: Front Binding Boards of 2 volumes of a 1524 publication of the Iliad, Odyssey and Batrachomyomachia………………………………………92 vi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The promotion of Italian art and architecture in Renaissance France can be largely attributed to King François I (1494-1547), who throughout the course of his reign summoned Italian artists to the French court and patronized their works. One of François’ greatest architectural endeavors was the construction of a royal château at Fontainebleau (begun 1528), a residence that soon became a major hub of artistic production during his reign and that of his son, King Henri II (1519-1559). When François I died in 1547, Henri II’s Italian-born wife, Queen Catherine de’ Medici (1519-1589), continued to advocate for the artists of her native land, and her clout in the French court after Henri’s death in 1559 ensured the continuation of Italian- inspired art in France well into the 1560’s and 70’s. In 1530, François I hired Italian artist Rosso Fiorentino (1494-1540) to direct the interior decoration of Fontainebleau. Many French, Flemish and Italian artists were recruited to work as Rosso’s assistants. When Rosso died in 1540, fellow Italian artist Francesco Primaticcio (c.1504-1570), who had accepted François I’s invitation to come to work at Fontainebleau in 1532, inherited Rosso’s position as master designer and supervisor of decoration of all interior spaces of the château. This melting pot of artists responsible for the château’s interior decoration, which came to be known as the School of Fontainebleau, created a unique and elaborate style of ornamentation, which combined Italian Mannerism with French Classicism in an array of media including fresco, wood and stucco embellished with gilding. 1 The largest artistic project pursued at Fontainebleau, which sadly no longer survives, was the decoration of the Galerie d’Ulysse, a gallery in the southern wing of the château that ran along the gardens and linked a square pavilion to a constructed grotto. The walls of the Galerie d’Ulysse were decorated with fifty-eight frescoes illustrating the story of Ulysses from Homer’s Odyssey. Five of the fifty-eight scenes depicted the story of Ulysses’ reunion with Penelope, a subject that has rarely been represented in Western art. A modified version of one of these five scenes was painted on canvas by Francesco Primaticcio, who designed the entire program, and is now in the Toledo Museum of Art in Ohio (figure 1). It is the only surviving easel painting by Primaticcio that closely follows one of the fresco scenes in the Galerie d’Ulysse. Surprisingly, little is known about the patronage and function of this painting. Its peculiar subject matter suggests that Primaticcio must have produced the painting for someone who was familiar with the Galerie d’Ulysse and would have appreciated its theme. The painting has been dated to ca. 1560, sometime around the death of Henri II and Catherine de’ Medici’s regency. Subsequent to Henri’s death, Catherine strove to present a positive image of herself as the regent of France. It was common for people of high authority in the sixteenth century to identify themselves with popular mythological or historical figures and use attributes associated with those figures as their own personal emblems. Catherine, for example, identified with Queen Artemisia of Caria, a woman famously remembered as a grief-stricken widow, who successfully ruled her country.1 Just as Artemisia commissioned the colossal Mausoleum at Halikarnassus for her late husband, King Mausolus, so did Catherine erect a monumental tomb and burial chapel for Henri II. The designer of the tomb was Primaticcio, and interestingly enough, some of the 1 For further reading on Catherine’s self-identification with Artemisia, see Sheila ffolliott, “Catherine de’Medici as Artemisia: Figuring the Powerful Widow,” in Rewriting the Renaissance: The Discourses of Sexual Difference in Early Modern Europe, ed. Margaret W. Ferguson, et. al., (Chicago; London: The University of Chicago Press, 1986), 227-241. 2 imagery from the tomb is very similar to one of the five reunion scenes in the Galerie d’Ulysse. The five reunion scenes in the Galerie d’Ulysse, which are distinctive due to their unique subject matter and repetitive imagery, have only been studied as part of a larger series.2 In the course of this paper, I will examine the five reunion scenes independently