The Institution of Sport: Female Athletes, Media Representation and the Social Construction of a Dual Gender Identity Rebecca Martindale A Thesis in The Department of Education Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts (Educational Studies) at Concordia University Montreal, Quebec, Canada March 2020 © Rebecca Martindale, 2020 CONCORDIA UNIVERSITY School of Graduate Studies This is to certify that the thesis prepared By: Rebecca Martindale Entitled: The Institution of Sport: Female Athletes, Media Representation and the Social Construction of a Dual Gender Identity and submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts (Educational Studies) complies with the regulations of the University and meets the accepted standards with respect to originality and quality. Signed by the final examining committee: Examiner Adeela Arshad-Ayaz Examiner Ailie Cleghorn Supervisor Ayaz Nasseem Approved by Sarita Kennedy Chair of Department or Graduate Program Director March 27, 2020 André Roy Dean of Faculty ABSTRACT The Institution of Sport: Female Athletes, Media Representation and the Social Construction of a Dual Gender Identity Rebecca Martindale The purpose of this study is to discuss the intersectionality of feminine identity and athletic identity, as well as the public representation of female athletes, labeling, and the construction of dual identities. Media images of elite female athletes were deconstructed in order to analyze how media images of female athletes mold and influence public opinion and discourse. The findings of this study discuss stereotypes of femininity, while deconstructing how the media influences the societal interpretation of femininity, and how this affects the advancement of women’s sport. This discussion concludes that femininity and appearance are at the root of how society understands and values female athletes. Successful female athletes automatically become representative of all women in sport, and their actions and public image on and off the field of play have a substantial impact on the sustainability and advancement of female sport in general. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It has taken support and guidance from many people to allow this thesis to come to realization. I am utterly grateful for everyone who went into making this possible. I would first like to thank my advisors and professors at Concordia in the Educational Studies department. I was very nervous and unsure when I first started this educational program. You provided me with an environment where I was able to engage in the material and become excited about the subject matter at hand. I would specifically like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Ayaz Naseem, for his leadership and mentorship during this process. I would also like to thank the members of the committee, Dr. Arshad-Ayaz and Dr. Cleghorn, for their time and support. I have had immeasurable support from my family throughout this entire process. I would like to thank Laura and Brent for their educational insights and editing skills, and my parents for their continued support. I would especially like to thank my husband, Curtis for being my best supporter through this entire process. You have encouraged me to face my fears and be brave, allowing me to experience opportunities I never thought possible. You truly have all my words. And lastly, Dax. You are my most precious accomplishment. Thank you for making every day brighter. iv DEDICATION To Curtis and Dax, you have all my words. v Table of Contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ iv Dedication ........................................................................................................................................v Lists of Images ............................................................................................................................. viii Chapter One: Introduction ...............................................................................................................1 Context .................................................................................................................................4 Researcher Location.............................................................................................................8 Research Questions ............................................................................................................10 Significance .................................................................................................................................. 10 Chapter Two: Literature Review ...................................................................................................12 Critical Feminist Theory ........................................................................................12 Objectification Theory ...........................................................................................14 Section One: Media, Gender and Sport .............................................................................15 Section Two: Sexual Objectification and Sexuality ..........................................................19 Section Three: Athletic and Social Identity ......................................................................22 Section Four: Women in Hockey .......................................................................................25 Section Five: Global Consciousness ..................................................................................27 Chapter Three: Methodology .........................................................................................................31 Methodological Approach .................................................................................................31 Research Design.................................................................................................................32 Deconstruction of Images ..................................................................................................34 Case Study One ..................................................................................................................35 Case Study Two .................................................................................................................37 Case Study Three ...............................................................................................................39 Data Analysis .....................................................................................................................41 Chapter Four: Discussion ...............................................................................................................42 Case Study One ..................................................................................................................42 Impact of the Image ...........................................................................................................43 Case Study Two .................................................................................................................45 Impact of the Image ...........................................................................................................46 Case Study Three ...............................................................................................................48 Impact of the Image ...........................................................................................................50 Common Trends: Female Apologetic Behaviour ..............................................................51 Chapter Five: Gendered Athleticism .............................................................................................53 Chapter Six: Concluding Remarks, Limitations, and Moving Forward ........................................59 Discussion ..........................................................................................................................59 Limitations .........................................................................................................................61 Moving Forward ................................................................................................................62 vi References ......................................................................................................................................63 Appendices .....................................................................................................................................71 Appendix A ........................................................................................................................71 Appendix B ........................................................................................................................74 Appendix C ........................................................................................................................76 Appendix D ........................................................................................................................79 Appendix E ........................................................................................................................81 Appendix F.........................................................................................................................83