“THE EFFECTS OF COUNTRY-OF-ORIGIN IMAGE ON CONSUMER PRODUCT INVOLVEMENT: A PAKISTANI UNIVERSITY TEACHERS’ PERSPECTIVE” A thesis submitted to University of Salford in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy AMNA SHAHZAD SALFORD BUSINESS SCHOOL, UNIVERSITY OF SALFORD, MANCHESTER, JULY, 2014 DEDICATION My research and every success are dedicated to these three most important people in my life: Hazrat Mohammad (PBUH) – my beloved prophet and father of the Ummah, who gave the vision, freedom and respect to the women in Islam. I am proud to be a Muslim woman who loves Him immensely. Rana Ayaz Mahmood – my beloved father, who always showed me the path of righteous, being follower of our Holy Prophet (PBUH) showered his love over me as a daughter, fought with the culture and society, and, gave me education, confidence, courage and motivation, to fight for my rights and to achieve what I got. Abu you are a shining star for me, no matter if you are not around me in this world now, but I strongly believe that you have knowledge of my achievements and are happy for me. I love you. Mrs Naseem Akhtar – my beloved mother, who always nurtured me with love and guided me through thick and thins of life. Thanks for being a constant support and treasure full of prayers and love. I am indebted to you for being great source of encouragement and inspiration. Ammi your prayers make me stand strong, firm and tall on my feet. At this last stage of your Cancer, your bravery, courage, patience and fight is inspirational. The completion of my PhD was not possible without your prayers. I love you. ii Table of Contents DEDICATION ......................................................................................................................................... ii LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................................. vii LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................................. x ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................... xii LIST OF ACRONYMS ......................................................................................................................... xiv ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................... xv CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 1 1.1. Aim of Research ........................................................................................................................... 6 1.2. Research Objectives ..................................................................................................................... 7 1.3. Flow of Research Process ............................................................................................................ 7 1.4. Overview of Chapters................................................................................................................... 9 CHAPTER 2: EFFECTS OF COO-IMAGE ON CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR: THEORETICAL AND EMPIRICAL REVIEW OF LITERATURE .......................................................................................... 11 2. What is the Country of Origin (COO)? .......................................................................................... 11 2.1. The COO-image ......................................................................................................................... 12 2.2. The Background and Emergence of the Construct of the COO-image ...................................... 16 2.3. The Effects of COO-image ........................................................................................................ 23 2.3.1. Multi-Cue Effects (Intrinsic and Extrinsic Cues) ................................................................... 29 2.3.2. Multiple COO (hybrid) Cue Effects ....................................................................................... 31 2.3.3. The Globalisation Effects ....................................................................................................... 33 2.3.4. Product Type Effects .............................................................................................................. 36 2.3.5. National and Stereotype Effects: Developed and Developing Countries ............................... 37 2.3.6 Consuming Country and Cultural Orientation Effects .................................................................. 41 2.3.7. Consumer Expertise Effects (Summary or Halo Construct) .................................................. 44 2.3.7.1. The COO-image and Perceived Product Quality and Risk ................................................ 47 2.3.7.1.1. Countries’ Drive for Improvement in their Perception as ‘Quality Provider’ from a COO Perspective 49 2.3.8. Consumer Intention to Adopt (with reference to Consumer Innovativeness) Effects ............ 51 2.3.8.1. Consumer’s Product Adoption Process ..................................................................................... 61 2.3.8.2. Classification of Consumers based on their Product Adoption ................................................. 62 iii 2.3.8.3. Influences on consumer Intention to Adopt .............................................................................. 63 2.3.8.4. Association of Consumer Intention to Adopt and the COO-image ........................................... 72 2.3.9. Consumer Product Involvement Effects................................................................................. 75 2.3.9.1. Association of Consumers’ Information Search, Product Knowledge and the COO-image 78 2.3.9.2. Association of Consumers’ Product Involvement and the COO-image ............................. 82 2.3.10. Consumer Ethnocentrism Effects ........................................................................................... 91 2.3.10.1. The Effects of the Aspects of Consumer Ethnocentrism .................................................... 93 2.3.10.2. Consumer Ethnocentrism and the COO-image Effects .................................................... 102 2.4. The COO as a Brand ................................................................................................................ 106 2.5. The COO Strategies ................................................................................................................. 107 2.6. The COO-image Effects: Pakistani Perspective ....................................................................... 111 2.7. Summary of Literature Review and Gap Identification ........................................................... 117 2.7.1. Gaps in the Existing Literature ................................................................................................... 120 CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ........................................................ 123 3.1. Theory Vs Research ...................................................................................................................... 123 3.2. Deductive and Inductive Approach ............................................................................................... 124 3.3. Research Paradigms ...................................................................................................................... 128 3.3.1. Ontological Considerations ........................................................................................................ 129 3.3.1.1. Constructionism ...................................................................................................................... 129 3.3.1.2. Objectivism ............................................................................................................................. 130 3.3.2. Epistemological Considerations ................................................................................................. 130 3.3.2.1. Realism .................................................................................................................................... 131 3.3.2.2. Interpretivism .......................................................................................................................... 132 3.3.2.3. Positivism ................................................................................................................................ 133 3.4. Research Strategy: Quantitative and Qualitative ........................................................................... 135 3.5. The Research Methodology .......................................................................................................... 138 3.5.1 Sampling ..................................................................................................................................... 144 3.5.2 Procedure ..................................................................................................................................... 148 3.5.3 Measurement of Variables (Instrument 1) ................................................................................... 149 3.5.3.1 Demographic Data.................................................................................................................... 150 3.5.3.2 Frequency of Purchase ............................................................................................................