The Jewish Neo-Aramaic Dialect of Dohok: A Comparative Perspective By Dorota Molin TRINITY HALL This thesis is submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Faculty of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies University of Cambridge March, 2021 DECLARATION This thesis is the result of my own work and includes nothing which is the outcome of work done in collaboration except as declared in the preface and specified in the text. It is not substantially the same as any work that has already been submitted before for any degree or other qualification except as declared in the preface and specified in the text. The dissertation does not ex- ceed the word limit of 80,000 as set by the Degree Committee for the Faculty of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies. For Sarah Adaqi and the larger ‘Dohok’ community of Maʿoz Ziyyon, Israel. – Yarxi xayax, Sota Sarah! CONTENTS ABSTRACT XV ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS XVII LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS XIX LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES XXIII INTRODUCTION 1 Aims and their justification 1 Linguistic and historical background of NENA 3 The linguistic and social background of J. Dohok Neo-Aramaic 4 Literature review 6 Organisation of the thesis 7 Sources & methodology 9 0.6.1. Data collection and sources 9 0.6.2. Transcription 12 0.6.3. Glossing and terminology 13 0.6.4. Linguistic methodology: a theory-grounded grammatical description and study of microvariation 17 PHONOLOGY THE SEGMENTS: CONSONANTS AND VOWELS 23 Introduction 23 Consonants 25 1.2.1. Consonantal phonemes 25 1.2.2. Historical background of selected phonemes 27 1.2.2.1. Dental stops and fricatives /t/, /θ/, /d/ and /ð/ 27 1.2.2.2. The pharyngeals /ḥ/ and /ʿ/ 28 1.2.2.2.1. Words with a historical pharyngeal in the vicinity of an emphatic or q: 29 ii CONTENTS 1.2.2.2.2. Words with a lost historical pharyngeal in J. Dohok 30 1.2.2.2.3. Innovated pharyngeals 31 1.2.2.2.4. Historical background of pharyngeals in NENA 31 1.2.2.3. Emphatic phonemes 32 1.2.2.3.1. Phonetic properties of NENA emphatics 32 1.2.2.3.2. The emphatic phonemes in J. Dohok 34 1.2.2.3.3. The historical Aramaic emphatics /ṭ/ and /ṣ/ 36 1.2.2.3.4. Secondary emphatics in native words 37 1.2.2.3.5. Loan phonemes 39 1.2.2.4. /v/ and /f/ 40 1.2.2.5. /q/ 40 1.2.2.6. /ġ/ 40 1.2.2.7. /ʾ/ 41 Vowels 45 1.3.1. Introduction 45 1.3.2. Vowel phonemes 45 1.3.3. Phonetic properties of phonemes and their allophones 48 1.3.3.1. /a/ and /ă/ 50 1.3.3.2. /e/ 52 1.3.3.3. /i/ 53 1.3.3.4. /o/ 53 1.3.3.5. /u/ 55 1.3.3.6. /ǝ/ as allophone and phoneme 56 1.3.4. Diphthongs and their reflexes 58 1.3.4.1. *ay > e 58 1.3.4.2. *aw > o 58 1.3.4.3. *iy >i, *əw > u and *uw > u 59 CONTENTS iii PHONETIC PROCESSES AND LARGER PHONOLOGICAL UNITS 61 2.1. Phonetically-conditioned processes affecting consonants 61 2.1.1. Devoicing 61 2.1.2. Aspiration 61 2.1.3. Place assimilation 62 2.1.4. Complete phoneme assimilation of the l in L-suffixes 62 2.1.5. Sonorant interchange 62 2.2. Emphasis spread (affecting consonants and vowels) 65 2.2.1. Degrees of emphasis caused by the emphatic phonemes 68 2.2.2. Directionality of spread 70 2.2.3. Domain of emphasis spread 71 2.3. Phonotactics 75 2.3.1. Consonant cluster resolution 75 2.3.1.1. Word-final CC cluster resolved CǝC 76 2.3.1.2. Word-internal CCC cluster resolved CCǝC 76 2.3.1.3. Word-internal CCC cluster with liquid as C2 resolved CǝCC 77 2.3.1.4. Word-initial CCC clusters (with a morpheme boundary between C1 and C2) resolved CəCC 77 2.3.1.5. CC cluster with C1 /ʾ/ resolved with CVC 78 2.3.2. Syllable structure, vowel length and lexical stress 79 2.3.2.1. Lexical stress 79 2.3.2.2. Loanwords 80 2.3.2.3. Complex verbal and enclitic copula forms 81 2.3.2.3.1. Forms based on šaqəl 83 2.3.2.3.2. Forms based on šqəlle 87 2.3.2.3.3. Forms with enclitic copula 87 iv CONTENTS 2.3.2.3.4. The Imperative 88 2.3.3. Annexation units 89 2.3.3.1. Historical construct state 90 2.3.3.2. Neo-construct state 90 2.3.2.3.5. Apocopation causing syllable closure (CV.CV > CV̄C and CVC) 91 2.3.2.3.6. Apocopation causing syllable opening (C.CV > C.əC) 92 2.3.4. Forms with numerals 93 2.4. Intonation units: nucleus stress and pause 94 MORPHOLOGY PRONOUNS 101 3.1. Independent personal pronouns 101 3.2. Demonstrative pronouns 102 3.2.1. Near and far deixis 102 3.2.2. Very far deixis 102 3.2.3. Anaphoric pronouns 103 3.3. Pronominal suffixes on nouns and prepositions 103 3.4. The independent genitive particle 106 3.5. Reflexive pronoun 107 3.6. The pronoun of independence 108 3.7. The pronoun of isolation 108 3.8. Interrogative pronouns 109 3.9. Indefinite pronouns 109 OVERVIEW OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 111 Nouns 111 4.1.1. Singular endings 111 4.1.2. Plural forms 112 CONTENTS v 4.1.2.1. Semantically masculine nouns with -a (SG) and -aθa (PL) 113 4.1.2.2. Semantically feminine nouns with θa/ta (SG): -aθa and -e in PL 113 4.1.2.3. Irregular and suppletive plurals 114 4.1.2.4. Nouns with no singular form (pluralia tantum) 114 Adjectives and their agreement with nouns 115 4.2.1. Inflection of adjectives and agreement 115 4.2.2. Uninflected adjectives 116 Annexation of nouns 117 4.3.1. Annexation by means of the genitive particle –ət 117 4.3.2. Annexation with the independent genitive particle did 118 4.3.3. Historical construct state 118 4.3.4. Neo-construct state 119 VERBAL MORPHOLOGY 121 Introduction: Derivational morphology in Semitic 121 The inventory of patterns, stems and inflectional affixes 124 5.2.1. Patterns and stems and their historical background 124 5.2.2. Šaqəl and the inflectional E-suffixes 129 5.2.3. Šqəlle and the inflectional L-suffixes 130 5.2.4. The Participle 131 5.2.5. Imperative 132 Weak verbs in Pattern I 134 5.3.1. Class I of verba primae /Ø/: ʾamər ‘say’ and ʾaxəl ‘eat’ 135 5.3.2. Class II of verba primae /ʾ/ < */ʿ/: ʾarəq ‘run’ 140 5.3.3. Verba primae /y/: yasəq ‘go up’ 141 5.3.4. Verba mediae /y/, e.g. kayəp ‘bend’ 142 5.3.5. Verba mediae /w/: kawəš ‘go down’ 143 5.3.6. Verba tertiae /ʾ/: šameʾ ‘hear’ 144 vi CONTENTS 5.3.7. Verba tertiae /y/: maxe ‘hit’ 146 Weak verbs in Pattern II 148 5.4.1. Verba mediae /y/: mhayər ‘dare’ 148 5.4.2. Verba mediae /w/: mjawəb ‘answer’ 149 5.4.3. Verbs with identical C2 and C3: t-l-l ‘get wet’, x-l-l ‘wash (one’s hands)’ 149 Weak verbs in Pattern III 151 5.5.1. Verba primae /Ø/: maxəl ‘feed’ 151 5.5.2. Verba primae/ʾ/ maʾărǝq ‘cause to flee’ 153 5.5.3. Verba mediae /w/, e.g. makuš ‘bring down’ 154 5.5.4. Verbs primae /y/, e.g. mayʾəl ‘bring in’ 155 Irregular verbs 156 5.6.1. ‘Want‘ ʾə́be (< *b-ʾ-y) 156 5.1.6.1.1. Overview of forms 156 5.1.6.1.2. Historical background 157 5.6.2. ‘Know’ yaʾe (< *y-ð-ʾ) 163 5.6.3. ‘Give’ yawəl (< *y-h-w) 168 5.6.4. ‘Bring’ meθe (< *ʾ-θ-y) 170 5.6.5. ‘Be able’ ʾəṃṣe (ṃ-ṣ-y) 173 5.6.6. ‘Be born’ and ‘be’ hawe (*h-w-y) 174 Towards a typology of verbal derivation in NENA 178 5.7.1. Root and/or template opacity 179 5.7.2. Stem uniformity across a paradigm and the derivation of stems from stems 181 5.7.3. Analogical change (‘reanalysis’) of the pattern 182 5.7.4. Loanwords 184 5.7.5. Summary 184 CONTENTS vii SYNTAX AND MORPHOSYNTAX THE EXPRESSION OF (PRONOMINAL) OBJECTS AND RELATED ARGUMENTS 189 Introduction 189 Objects of monotransitive 192 6.2.1. Šaqəl-based forms except qam-šaqəl-la with L-suffixes 192 6.2.2. Past perfective forms 193 6.2.2.1. Qam-šaqəl-la with L-suffixes 193 6.2.2.2. Šqəlle with E-suffixes 194 6.2.2.3. Šqəlle with the independent prepositional pronoun ʾal- 198 6.2.3. The Imperative with L-suffixes 198 6.2.4. Wele šqila (resultative) with ʾəll- 199 Ditransitive and constructions with object-like arguments 200 6.3.1. Šaqəl-based forms except qam-šaqəl-la 200 6.3.2. Šaqəl with L-suffixes 200 6.3.3. Šaqəl with the independent prepositional pronoun ṭa- (and ʾəll-?) 202 Past perfective forms 202 6.4.1. Šqəlle with L-suffixes 202 6.4.2. Šqəlle with the independent prepositional pronouns ṭa- (or ʾəll- and ʾəbb-) 204 6.4.3. Qam-šaqəl-la with L-suffixes 205 Object (P, T and R) affixes on past perfective forms in LD in general 208 Differential object marking 212 6.6.1.