Oral Tradition, 23/2 (2008): 267-295 Thrênoi to Moirológia: Female Voices of Solitude, Resistance, and Solidarity Andrea Fishman Margaret Alexiou’s The Ritual Lament in Greek Tradition offered a diachronic, comprehensive study of Greek ritual lament that emphasized continuities between ancient and modern lament traditions while incorporating stylistic and thematic analyses of lament texts. In the past three decades, Alexiou’s seminal work has been fundamental in shaping the field of lament studies; it has influenced scholars from such various academic fields as classics, comparative literature, anthropology, ethnomusicology, and folklore to engage in explorations of mourning that take into account textual, performative, and cultural contexts.1 The anthropologist Anna Caraveli-Chaves, whose fieldwork emphasizes cultural issues of gender and lament in rural Epiros and Crete, has identified the following salient elements of modern Greek women’s lament: the role of the lamenter as mediator, or “bridge” between the worlds of the living and the dead; the aesthetics and function of ponos (“pain”); lament as vehicle for revenge; lament as an instrument for social criticism and protest; and finally the role of lament in establishing solidarity among the community of women mourners.2 This essay explores the relationship between gender, lamentation, and death in the Greek tradition, making use of Alexiou’s diachronic paradigm and by expanding upon Caraveli-Chaves’ ideas regarding the social role of lament by examining and comparing ancient literary representations of women in mourning with authentic examples of women’s lament practices based on ethnographic material from modern rural Greece. I shall focus specifically on the function of female lament as an expression of individual and collective pain (ponos; plural ponoi) and as a vehicle for uniting Greek women mourners through social bonding and solidarity in a community—what Caraveli-Chaves has termed a 1 Alexiou 2002; Auerbach 1987; Caraveli-Chaves 1986; Caraveli-Chaves 1980; Danforth 1982; Derderian 2001; Dué 2002; Feld 1982; H. Foley 2001; Holst-Warhaft 1992; Kitzinger 1991; Koskoff 1987; Kurke 1992; Lardinois 2001; Levaniouk 1999; Loraux 1998; Martin 2003; McClure 1999; Nagy 1996; Ó Laoire 2005; Partridge 1980; Racy 1986; Rosenblatt et al. 1976; Segal 1989, 1993; Seremetakis 1991; Sultan 1993, 1999; Suter 2008. 2 See Caraveli-Chaves 1986 for a further detailed discussion of the categories of the functions of women’s lament in the social context of modern Greek village culture based on her fieldwork in contemporary Epirot com- munities. 268 ANDREA FISHMAN “sisterhood of pain”—by interweaving the threads of tragic descriptions of female mourning in Euripides’ Suppliants with analogous examples of documented female lament (moirológia) from modern rural Epiros, Crete, and Inner Mani.3 Female lamentation for the dead, both ancient and modern, is an emotive and expressive genre that voices an individual’s personal ponoi in her role as mourner—a voice of solitude; it also expresses a communal voice of collective grief, one of solidarity. Moreover, in the contexts of both ancient Greek tragedy and contemporary rural Greek society, female mourners use lamentation for the dead as a catalyst—more precisely, the “enabling event” (to borrow a term from John Miles Foley)—for expressing their essentially painful and sorrowful experiences in the world among the living and for protesting the power of the dominant patriarchal society (J. Foley 1995:64-65). I intend to illuminate significant facets by which ancient and modern Greek lament traditions mirror each other in their function, theme, agency, and verbal art by using modern ethnographic evidence as a heuristic and interpretive device in order to better understand the ancient tragic texts. Such clear parallels in the modes of lament between material from the present and from the fifth century B.C.E. are not surprising. One might interpret the parallel thematic and functional elements of women’s laments for the dead as evidence of diachronic continuity and historical residue from ancient Greek tragic poetry through the contemporary laments in rural areas of Greece. Artemesia Kapsali’s modern lament for her husband Yiannis, for example (see below), expresses not only her grief for the loss of her husband but also embodies a voice that represents the community of Epirot women and mothers united in their feelings of helplessness and anger against war just as the chorus of Argive women in Euripides’ Suppliants manifests a collective voice of women and mothers bound by a “sisterhood in pain,” helplessness, and grief in their inability to properly mourn and bury their sons. It is not my intention to privilege the ancient texts over modern performance contexts, nor to objectify or romanticize the modern Greek village moiroloyístres; for the voices of these women in black—voices that are otherwise marginalized in a distinctly patriarchal village culture—become instruments of cultural power in the context of lament performance. I intend, rather, to use the mirror images of ancient and modern women’s lament texts and lament-songs to demonstrate a diachronic continuity in the power of the female voice—albeit the marginalized and restricted female voice—through the tradition of Greek women’s lament for the dead. A comparison between the analogous features of modern and ancient female lament traditions is intended to help uncover what I believe are the veiled voices of the ancient Greek lamenters, namely, the anonymous women mourners whose powerful lament-songs were appropriated from their original context of oral performance (the mourning ritual) and incorporated into dramatic 3 Caraveli-Chaves (1986:181) uses the term, “sisterhood in pain” to describe the phenomenon of women’s bonding through lament performance in rural Epirot and Cretan communities. There is a consensus among female ethnographers who have researched the subject of gender and mourning in modern rural Greece (see n. 1 above) that the performance of laments and other ritual mourning practices serve to bond and unite women through a solidarity based on a community of shared grief and pain. Caraveli-Chaves’ phrase most accurately sums up this female sub- culture. Herzfeld (1986:215-34) cautions against generalizations concerning categories (e.g. “female vs. male,” “private vs. public,” “Mediterranean society,” “village culture”) used by (primarily female) anthropologists in eth- nographies of modern Greece. FEMALE VOICES OF RESISTANCE IN ANCIENT GREECE 269 performances and texts that were composed by male poets and performed by male actors.4 I thus consider women’s laments for the dead as they are represented in classical Greek tragedy to be an embedded genre of poetry, specifically, a genre of oral poetry that playwrights such as Euripides borrowed from the original, “native artists”—women who actually engaged in ritual lamentation—as well as from the traditional oral performance context and integrated into their dramatic poetic texts.5 Moreover, diachronic parallels in theme, verbal art, and function become evident when one situates women’s laments for the dead in the genre and performative context of a continuous oral tradition and perceives representations of women’s laments in ancient Greek tragedy as “oral-derived” texts (J. Foley 1995:60-65). In my view, the original female voices of the anonymous “native artists” were transposed to the dramatic personae of notable women mourners (performed by male actors on stage) and continued diachronically in the oral tradition of women’s laments for the dead. This thread of an oral lament tradition that survived in the “oral-derived” texts of classical tragedy was rediscovered, so to speak, by ethnographers who have documented women’s lament traditions in modern rural Greece in the performances of artful—often illiterate, but certainly not anonymous—lament poets such as Chrysa Kalliakati or Artemesia Kapsali (Caraveli-Chaves 1980; 1986). I rely on Foley’s definition of an “oral-derived” text—that is, a “text with its roots in oral tradition” as a category for (representations of) Greek women’s laments for the dead as well as the process he explains as “the rhetorical persistence of pretextual, traditional forms” (1995:60- 65). It is Foley’s view that a developing literary tradition often gradually usurps and eventually privileges written texts over an original oral tradition—a process that eventually engenders the “oral-derived text” (60-65; 80-81).6 He describes how this process of textualization often diminishes the original force of the primary voices of “native artists” (e.g. the original creators, poets and performers) in various oral traditions (60-98).7 Surely women’s lament-songs were emotionally potent enough in their original verbal art and performance to provide convincing and compelling material for the ancient Greek dramatic poets. Added to these vocal lamentations, the dramatic bodily movements—tearing the face and hair, beating the breast, rending one’s garments—together with other vocalizations (shouts of aiai, oi, ea, and so forth), the dramatic potential for representations of women’s lament performance was indeed considerable. It is no wonder that the dramatists found the emotional power of women’s lament for the dead appealing and included their interpretations of it in their own dramatic texts; to have excluded it would have reduced the validity and the richness of their own works. 4 See J. Foley’s discussion of the original, “native artists” in various global oral poetic traditions (1995:80). 5 Segal (1989:355) comments on the relation between tragic and oral poet: “The tragic poet draws on the oral poet’s inherited role as spokesman for communal values and the continuities of social and religious forms.” 6 See Foley’s bibliography for works on oral poetry and the oral tradition (J. Foley 1995). For a succinct history and additional bibliography on oral poetry, see J. Foley 1988. Cf. Bakker 1993; Finnegan 1977; Lord 1991; Nagy 1996; Ong 1982. 7 See Ó Laoire’s illuminating discussions on the process of improvisation and oral poetry in the Irish folk tradition (Ó Laoire 2004).