Feminisms in Kazakhstan: On the intersection of global influences and local contexts by Xeniya Udod A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Eurasian Studies at NAZARBAYEV UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCE Astana, Kazakhstan 2018 ii © Copyright 2018 Xeniya Udod All Rights Reserved iii Abstract This thesis is an exploratory qualitative study into the recent revival of feminism which is now gaining its momentum in Kazakhstan, where several feminist unions and numerous individual activists publicly promote feminist ideas, advocate for gender equality and LBTIQ rights in the country. By drawing on in-depth interviews with the outspoken feminist activists, I posit that contemporary feminisms in Kazakhstan are now entering the stage of reflecting on their specific stance vis-à-vis the complex set of gender ideologies and practices concerning Central Asian women and their space in the society, ranging from (but not limited to) the system of patriarchy, controversial Soviet project of “women’s liberation,” more recent influences of Western neoliberalism and capitalism, and the dominant discourse of “Western feminism.” My research data demonstrate that by admitting the constructed, complex nature of contemporary Kazakhstani feminisms, my respondents move to the elaboration on the modalities of the movement’s further prospects, such as its grounding in Kazakh(stani) context, as well as closer collaboration with other Central Asian feminisms which has the potential to form a particular local type of post-socialist feminisms, sensitive to and embedded in the region’s tangled geo- temporal realities. iv Acknowledgements Firstly, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my research advisers Dr. Elizabeth Mount and the director of the Eurasian Studies Program Dr. Alima Bissenova, for their constant support and encouragement, great patience and insightful recommendations in the process of this research. I am greatly indebted for their motivation and conviction in the fact that this thesis will eventually be finalized. I express my deepest gratitude to my beloved husband, son, family and friends for their continuous support and encouragement in the long process of preparation of this thesis. Without your love and care I would never be able to accomplish this project. Finally, I would like to thank all my research participants for providing me with insightful information for this paper as well as for being – though unintentionally – a source of constant inspiration for me personally. To my daughter To my mother v Table of contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................................ iv Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................ v Table of contents .................................................................................................................. vi Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1 Research design and sampling ............................................................................................. 6 Researcher’s position .......................................................................................................... 10 Thesis organization .............................................................................................................. 11 Chapter 1. Positioning feminisms: Theoretical, historical, and socio-cultural aspects of Kazakhstani feminisms ........................................................................................................... 12 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 12 Theoretical framework........................................................................................................ 12 Embedding Kazakhstani feminisms within the country’ historical context .................. 23 Situating the emergence of feminism in Kazakhstan within the post-independence sociopolitical context ........................................................................................................... 30 The state of women in Kazakhstan’s contemporary sociocultural realities................... 33 Chapter 2. Introducing Kazakhstani feminisms: varieties, agendas, and activism .......... 38 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 38 The Feminist League of Kazakhstan ................................................................................. 39 Feminita ................................................................................................................................ 51 vi Krёlex zentr (Creolex Centr, Creoleak Centr, etc.) ......................................................... 56 KazFem ................................................................................................................................. 57 Freestanding feminisms ...................................................................................................... 60 Chapter 3. Modalities of feminist action and interaction .................................................... 64 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 64 Feminisms disconnected: generation gap .......................................................................... 64 Feminisms interconnected: joint actions and common concerns .................................... 68 Going digital: online feminism as an effective tool of feminist mobilization ................. 71 Chapter 4. Conceptualizing Kazakh(stani) feminisms: on the intersection of global influences and local contexts ................................................................................................... 78 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 78 Embedding feminism in local context ................................................................................ 78 Thinking regionally: trajectories of development of Central Asian feminisms ............. 86 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 89 Bibliography ................................................................................................................................. 93 Appendix A. Interview Guide ................................................................................................... 100 vii Introduction On 8 March 2017 – International Women’s Day, which is a state holiday in Kazakhstan – an unusual event took place in Almaty, the country’s largest and the most vibrant city. Several dozen women and a few men carrying feminist banners and shouting slogans such as “Freedom, sisterhood, feminism,” “Don’t tell us what to wear, tell them not to rape”, “Kitchen and fashion is not freedom!,” “My body – my rights,” “No’ to reproductive pressure,” “Observance of rights and safety in women’s prisons” and the like, marched down one of the city’s main streets – Zhibek Zholy, and specifically its most central pedestrianized part called Arbat – a popular place usually occupied by many tourists and passersby, idling around numerous high street stores and fancy cafés, gazing at street musicians and artists selling paintings and souvenirs. However, on that day this relaxed, bourgeois place turned into its opposite – a stage of civic activism and protest. The rally lasted some ten minutes, and, despite being unauthorized by the city authorities, went smoothly, “with no incidents and arrests,” as media put it; however, a few days after the event several organizers and participants of the rally were invited to the city’s Akimat (the city administration) where they were reprimanded for their actions and requested not to break laws anymore.1 By the time of this event I had already been closely following some Kazakhstani feminists on Facebook, as well as observing how local mass media were depicting them in their articles and editorials. My personal interest in the topic of feminism was instigated a few years earlier, in my early thirties, and was caused by my life experiences, and, most notably, with the experience of motherhood which turned out to be – quite surprisingly to me – a challenging and highly emotional task. I was upset with the discrepancy between the public image of ‘happy 1 In line with the “Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan on the Procedures of Arrangement and Holding of Peaceful Gatherings, Rallies, Marches, Pickets, and Demonstrations” (as of 17 March 1995), all mass gatherings must be authorized by local authorities (https://tengrinews.kz/zakon/prezident_respubliki_kazahstan/konstitutsionnyiy_stroy_i_osnovyi_gosudarstvennogo_ upravleniya/id-U950002126_/#z11). According to my informants, the feminist march was unauthorized by the Akimat of Almaty. 1 motherhood’ and its real-life struggles, doubts, and fears. To solve, or, rather, to soothe my inner disillusionment and worries, I began searching for explanations of the nature of these discrepancies, which eventually led me to feminist theories and debates. By digging deeper into