This page intentionally left blank Re-imagining Rwanda Conflict, Survival and Disinformation in the Late Twentieth Century The tragic conflict in Rwanda and the Great Lakes in 1994 to 1996 attracted the horrified attention of the world’s media. Journalists, diplomats and aid workers struggled to find a way to make sense of the bloodshed. Johan Pottier’s troubling study shows that the post-genocide regime in Rwanda was able to impose a simple yet persuasive account of Central Africa’s crises upon international commentators new to the region, and he explains the ideological underpinnings of this official narrative. He also provides a sobering analysis of the way in which this simple, persuasive, but fatally misleading analysis of the situation on the ground led to policy errors that exacerbated the original crisis. Professor Pottier has extensive field experience in the region, from before and after the genocide. JOHAN POTTIER is Professor of Social Anthropology at the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. His previous publica- tions include ‘Anthropology of Food: The Social Dynamics of Food Security’ (1999) and ‘Migrants No More: Settlement and Survival in Mambwe Villages, Zambia’ (1988). African Studies Series 102 Editorial Board Dr David Anderson, Department of History, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London Professor Carolyn Brown, Department of History, Rutgers University, New Jersey Professor Christopher Clapham, Department of Politics and International Relations, Lancaster University Professor Michael Gomez, Department of History, New York University Professor Patrick Manning, Department of History, Northeastern University, Boston Professor David Robinson, Department of History, Michigan State University Professor Leo Villalon, Department of Political Science, University of Kansas Published in collaboration with THE AFRICAN STUDIES CENTRE, CAMBRIDGE A list of books in this series can be found at the end of this volume. Re-imagining Rwanda Conflict, Survival and Disinformation in the Late Twentieth Century Johan Pottier School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge , United Kingdom Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521813662 © Johan Pottier 2002 This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published in print format 2002 isbn-13- 978-0-511-07325-0 eBook (EBL) isbn-10- 0-511-07325-9 eBook (EBL) isbn-13- 978-0-521-81366-2 hardback isbn-10- 0-521-81366-2 hardback isbn-13- 978-0-521-52873-3 paperback isbn-10- 0-521-52873-9 paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of s for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this book, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. Dedicated with affection to ‘auntie’ Adelina Goddyn – who taught me kinship knows no bounds and in memory of B´eatrice Chika – whose children became my own Our knowledge base of Rwanda and the Great Lakes is low ...We, therefore, need to be realistic and use the coming years to build a firmer political, eco- nomic and social knowledge base which we can use to judge the effectiveness and progress of our partnership. Department For International Development, UK, September 1999 Contents List of maps page x Acknowledgements xi List of abbreviations xiii Introduction: information and disinformation in times of conflict 1 1 Build-up to war and genocide: 9 society and economy in Rwanda and eastern Zaire 2 Mind the gap: 53 how the international press reported on society, politics and history 3 For beginners, by beginners: 109 knowledge construction under the Rwandese Patriotic Front 4 Labelling refugees: 130 international aid and the discourse of genocide 5 Masterclass in surreal diplomacy: 151 understanding the culture of ‘political correctness’ 6 Land and social development: 179 challenges, proposals and their imagery Conclusion: representation and destiny 202 Appendix: Summary of key dates and events 208 Notes 211 Bibliography 233 Index 248 ix Maps 1 Rwanda page xv 2 Great Lakes region xvi 3 Rwanda: refugees and displaced populations, 31 March 1995 xvii x Acknowledgements The past decade has been a time of grief, hope, reflection, research and infor- mation sharing on the subject of Rwanda. Never before have I met so many with whom so much needed to be mulled over and shared as a matter of ur- gency. While all remain in my thoughts, I thank in particular the many people in Rwanda who facilitated my visits following the war and genocide: the Rwanda- based staff of Save The Children (UK), especially Maureen Rogers and Gay Harper; the members of Team III of the Joint Evaluation of Humanitarian Assistance to Rwanda, expertly led by John Borton (Overseas Development Institute, London); and Bert Poelman, my brother-in-law, who supplied valu- able media clips in the early days of the tragedy. I must also acknowledge the excellent service of the United Nation’s IRIN Humanitarian Information Unit, which provides daily updates on the Great Lakes region, and that of the Library and Documentation Service of ABOS/AGCD, Belgium’s development administration, which issues a weekly press review. Writing this book has been time-consuming. I have incurred debts to my family, for allowing me the time and space to work in; to the Leverhulme Trust for funding the sabbatical year (1997–98) without which this book could not have been written; and to the colleagues and friends who have given so gen- erously of their precious spare time to comment on draft chapters. For their invaluable insights and support, I give warm thanks to James Fairhead, Lindsey Hilsum, Augustin Nkundabashaka, Nigel Eltringham and the anonymous read- ers for Cambridge University Press. Appreciation is extended to the many seminar organisers and participants who over the past few years have invited me to speak at their venues, partic- ularly at the universities of Oxford (Queen Elizabeth House), Leeds (African Studies Unit), Edinburgh (Centre of African Studies), Manchester, London (Institute of Commonwealth Studies, London School of Economics, School of Oriental and African Studies (Student Union, Anthropology Department), East Anglia (School of Development Studies), Sussex (Institute of Develop- ment Studies), Free University of Brussels (African Studies Centre), Louvain- La-Neuve, Roskilde (Centre for Development Studies), Copenhagen (Anthro- pology Department), Helsinki and Wageningen. Sincere thanks also go to the xi xii Acknowledgements organisers and participants of recent international workshops organised by the Nordic African Institute and by the Universities of Bologna and Naples in collaboration with the Feltrinelli Foundation (Milan). While these stimulating exchanges have hugely enriched my own thinking on Rwanda and the Great Lakes, it remains true that any book examining conflict will reflect the inescapable dilemma that one side’s ‘impartiality’ is another side’s ‘partiality’. Bound by this inevitable predicament, I nonetheless accept that I and I alone remain responsible for the synthesis and views expressed in this book. A most special thank you, of the kind that defies words, is due to my ‘new children’ Rukia and Hadija, both survivors of the 1994 genocide, who joined the family after the death of Maman Beatrice´ . They have added a new dimension to what it means to share, to persevere and to seek understanding. Heartfelt thanks are due also to Agn`es, Fifi, Sam and Tim for enduring my nomadic writing habit of always moving through the house in search of sunlight or a quiet corner. Johan Pottier Abbreviations ADFL Alliance of the Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Zaire AEF African Education Fund CDR Coalition pour la D´efense de la R´epublique / extremist offshoot of MRND(D), Rwanda CIA Central Intelligence Agency, USA CNS Conf´erence Nationale Souveraine, Zaire DFID Department For International Development, UK (formerly ODA) DPKO Department of Peace-Keeping Operations, UN DRC Democratic Republic of the Congo, formerly Zaire FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation, UN FAR Forces Arm´ees Rwandaises / Rwandan Armed Forces FAZ Forces Arm´ees Zairoises / Zairean Armed Forces FIDH F´ed´eration Internationale des Droits de l’Homme / International Federation of Human Rights GOR Government of Rwanda GTZ Gesellschaft f¨ur Technische Zusammenarbeit (Society for Technical Cooperation), Germany HRFOR Human Rights Field Operation in Rwanda, UN ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross IDP Internally Displaced Person IFRC International Federation of the Red Cross IMF International Monetary Fund IRC International Rescue Committee IRIN Integrated Regional Information Network, UN, Department of Humanitarian Affairs IWACU Centre de Formation et de Recherche Cooperatives, Rwanda MDR Mouvement D´emocratique R´epublicain / Democratic Republican Movement, Rwanda MINIREISO Ministry of Rehabilitation and Social Reintegration, Rwanda xiii xiv List of abbreviations MINITERE Ministry of Lands, Human Resettlement and Environmental Protection, Rwanda MINITRAP Ministry of Public Works, Rwanda MPR Mouvement Populaire