The Indian Ocean Trade and the Roman State This thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment of the degree of Master of Research Ancient History at the University of Wales Trinity Saint David, Lampeter Troy Wilkinson 1500107 Word Count: c.33, 000 Footnotes: 7,724 DECLARATION This work has not previously been accepted in substance for any degree and is not being concurrently submitted in candidature for any degree. Signed ............T. Wilkinson ......................................................... (candidate) Date .................10/11/2020....................................................... STATEMENT 1 This thesis is the result of my own investigations, except where otherwise stated. Where correction services have been used the extent and nature of the correction is clearly marked in a footnote(s). Other sources are acknowledged by footnotes giving explicit references. A bibliography is appended. Signed ..................T. Wilkinson ................................................... (candidate) Date ......................10/11/2020.................................................. STATEMENT 2 I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for inter-library loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to outside organisations. Signed ......................T. Wilkinson ............................................... (candidate) Date ............................10/11/2020............................................ STATEMENT 3 I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for deposit in the University’s digital repository. Signed ...................T. Wilkinson.................................................. (candidate) Date .....................10/11/2020................................................... Abstract Imperial Roman trading activity within the Indian Ocean has received increasing attention from scholars during the last few decades, much of it considering the role played by the Roman state. These studies have convincingly shown that state involvement was motivated, primarily, by the lucrative revenue that could be obtained via taxation and this thesis takes this as the foremost reason for state participation. Despite this strong motivation the nature of the relationship between the Roman state and the Indian Ocean trade is debated. On the one hand, scholars such as Nappo, Wilson, Bowman, Cobb and Sidebotham see this relationship as one of intimate and often proactive involvement. This included the provision of facilities that were vital for trade and the deployment of the military to support commercial activity. On the other hand, while Young has recognised the extensive state provision of roads, ports, and the military he views the nature of state involvement as fundamentally reactive and limited in some cases to little more than monitoring activity. It is due to these essentially contradicting positions that the aim of this thesis is to explore the nature of the relationship between the Indian Ocean trade and the Roman state and to examine the mechanisms by which the state interacted with this important sector of the economy. This will be achieved through considering the involvement of the state (using a large portion of Egypt’s military garrison) by providing security and potable water in the Eastern Desert and the Red Sea and how these activities were supervised by officials in the region. Through this analysis it will be proposed that a more nuanced understanding of the Roman state’s relationship with the Indian Ocean trade which combines both the proactive and reactive perspectives should be adopted. This will help to improve scholarly understanding of the relationship between the Roman state and the economy during the imperial period and will raise important questions that should be perused by subsequent research. Acknowledgements Bringing this thesis to fruition has been a labour of love and extensive self-coercion. However, it could not have been completed without the support and encouragement of many. My first and greatest debt of gratitude goes to my family for their constant support during the turbulent events of the last two years. Secondly, I would like to thank all my friends and loved ones for their role in shaping my life throughout this degree. Sadly, there are too many of you to list here but for your encouragement, laugher, memories, and lessons for life you have my deepest thanks. Thirdly I owe a debt of gratitude to Professor Michael Sommer and Professor Dionysus Agigus for their willingness to discuss my ideas and to share their knowledge and views on various aspects of Palmyra, the Eastern Desert, and the Red Sea. I am also grateful to Doctor Kyle Erickson for his feedback on other assignments which helped to inform this thesis and to Doctor Errietta Bissa for drawing my attention to the unique status of provincial Egypt and the possible effect which this might have had on arrangements in the Eastern Desert. I would also like to thank Doctor Ruth Parkes for the chance to present a portion of this thesis at a seminar in Lampeter. My final debt is owed to my supervisor, Doctor Matthew Cobb, who has been immeasurably supportive of my inquiries into Rome’s trade in the Indian Ocean and has helped to give a budding academic the best first steps into a field of study that could have been asked for. Contents Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 1 The Roman State and the Indian Ocean Trade ................................................................................... 2 Approach, Scope and Aim of the Thesis ............................................................................................. 3 The Roman State and Indian Ocean Trade Revenue .......................................................................... 5 The Size of the Roman Military Deployment in the Eastern Desert and the Red Sea ............................ 7 Calculating the Military Deployment .................................................................................................. 9 The praesidia ..................................................................................................................................... 11 The Quarries and Mines .................................................................................................................... 14 The Red Sea Ports ............................................................................................................................. 16 The Red Sea Fleet .............................................................................................................................. 19 Leuke Kome ....................................................................................................................................... 21 The Farasan Islands ........................................................................................................................... 22 Soldiers Outside of the Eastern Desert ............................................................................................. 23 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................... 24 Security in the Eastern Desert and the Red Sea ................................................................................... 25 The barbaroi of the Eastern Desert .................................................................................................. 26 The Pirates of the Red Sea ................................................................................................................ 29 Security in the Eastern Desert .......................................................................................................... 31 Security in the Red Sea ..................................................................................................................... 35 Campaigns Against the barbaroi ....................................................................................................... 38 Smuggling and Supervision ............................................................................................................... 39 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................... 40 Potable Water in the Eastern Desert .................................................................................................... 42 Potable Water and the Military ........................................................................................................ 43 Potable Water and Merchant Caravans ............................................................................................ 45 Potable Water and the Civilian Population ....................................................................................... 49 Collecting and Storing Potable Water ............................................................................................... 50 The Military and the Control of Potable Water ................................................................................ 52 Non-Potable Water Use .................................................................................................................... 60 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................