10E hy is it important for women to be represented in the Perspective A Comparative Politics: in Israeli Women of Representation The WKnesset and in cabinet? Are women who are elected The Representation of to these institutions expected to do more to promote “female” interests than their male counterparts? What are the factors influencing the representation of women in Israeli politics? How Women in Israeli Politics has their representation changed over the years, and would the imposition of quotas be a good idea? A Comparative Perspective This policy paper examines the representation of women in Israeli politics from a comparative perspective. Its guiding premise is that women’s representation in politics, and particularly in legislative bodies, is of great importance in that it is tightly bound to liberal and democratic principles. According to some researchers, it is also important because female legislators Policy Paper 10E advance “female” issues more than male legislators do. While there has been a noticeable improvement in the representation of women in Israeli politics over the years, the situation in Israel is still fairly poor in this regard. This paper Assaf Shapira | Ofer Kenig | Chen Friedberg | looks at the impact of this situation on women’s status and Reut Itzkovitch-Malka gender equality in Israeli society, and offers recommendations for improving women’s representation in politics. The steps recommended are well-accepted in many democracies around the world, but have yet to be tried in Israel. Why is it important for women to be Assaf Shapira | Ofer Kenig | Chen Friedberg | Reut Itzkovitch-Malka Friedberg | Chen | Ofer Kenig Shapira Assaf This publication is an English translation of a policy paper represented in the Knesset and in cabinet? published in Hebrew in August 2013, which was produced by Are women who are elected to these the Israel Democracy Institute’s “Political Reform Project,” led by Prof. Gideon Rahat. When the original Hebrew version institutions expected to do more to was written, Assaf Shapira and Reut Itzkovitch-Malka were promote “female” interests than their members of the project team, and doctoral students at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem’s political studies department; male counterparts? What are the factors Ofer Kenig was the head of the project’s Political Parties Team, influencing the representation of women and a senior lecturer at the Ashkelon Academic College; and Dr Chen Friedberg was the head of the project’s Knesset in Israeli politics? How has their Team and its Electoral System Team, and a lecturer at Ariel representation changed over the years, University’s Israel studies department. and would the imposition of quotas be a good idea? This policy paper examines the representation of women in Israeli ISBN 978-965-519-190-5 en.idi.org.il politics from a comparative perspective. Its guiding premise is that women’s The Representation of Women in Israeli Politics A Comparative Perspective Assaf Shapira | Ofer Kenig | Chen Friedberg | Reut Itzkovitch-Malka Policy Paper 10E July, 2016 The Israel Democracy Institute is an independent, non-partisan think-and-do tank dedicated to strengthening the foundations of Israeli democracy. IDI supports Israel’s elected officials, civil servants, and opinion leaders by developing policy solutions in the realms of political reform, democratic values, social cohesion, and religion and state. IDI promotes the values and norms vital for Israel’s identity as a Jewish and democratic state and maintains an open forum for constructive dialogue and consensus-building across Israeli society and government. The Institute assembles Israel’s leading thinkers to conduct comparative policy research, design blueprints for reform, and develop practical implementation strategies. In 2009, IDI was recognized with Israel’s most prestigious award—The Israel Prize for Lifetime Achievement: Special Contribution to Society and State. Among many achievements, IDI is responsible for the creation of the Knesset’s Research and Information Center, the repeal of the two-ballot electoral system, the establishment of Israel’s National Economic Council, and the launch of Israel’s constitutional process. IDI’s Board of Directors is comprised of some of the most influential individuals in Israeli society. The Institute’s prestigious International Advisory Council is headed by former US Secretary of State George P. Shultz. This policy paper was translated from Hebrew to English with the generous financial support of the Hadassah-Brandeis Institute. The views expressed in this policy paper do not necessarily reflect those of the Israel Democracy Institute. Translated by Reut Itzkovitch-Malka Text Editor: Daniel Barnett Series Design: Tartakover Design, Tal Harda Cover Design: Yossi Arza Typesetting: Shulamit Yerushalmi ISBN 978-965-519-190-5 No portion of this book may be reproduced, copied, photographed, recorded, translated, stored in a database, broadcast, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, optic, mechanical, or otherwise. Commercial use in any form of the material contained in this book without the express permission in writing of the publisher is strictly forbidden. Copyright © 2016 by The Israel Democracy Institute (R. A.) Printed in Israel The Israel Democracy Institute 4 Pinsker St., P.O.B. 4702, Jerusalem 9104602 Tel: (972)-2-5300-888 Website: http://en.idi.org.il To order books: Online Book Store: http://tinyurl.com/en-idi-store E-mail: [email protected] Tel: (972)-2-5300-800; Fax: (972)-2-5300-867 All IDI publications may be downloaded for free in full or in part at our website. Table of Contents Abstract 7 Introduction 15 Chapter One: What is Political Representation? 17 1. From Descriptive to Substantive Representation 20 Chapter Two: Descriptive Gender Representation 26 1. Women in Key Political Positions in Israel: A Comparative Portrait 26 2. Factors Affecting the Representation of Women in Parliament 48 Chapter Three: The Woman’s Voice: Substantive Representation of Women in the 17th and 18th Knesset Terms 61 1. Defining “Women’s Issues” 62 2. Methodology 69 3. Findings and Discussion 73 4. Conclusion 104 Chapter Four: Gender Quotas for Women in Parliament 108 1. Types of Gender Quotas for Women 108 2. The Adoption of Gender Quotas for Women: Processes and Effects 118 3. Gender Quotas in Israel: A Historical Review 130 4. Gender Quotas for Women: Discussion 153 Chapter Five: Summary and Recommendations 160 1. The Adoption of Voluntary Party Quotas 161 2. The Adoption of Legislated (Mandatory) Party Quotas 165 3. Indirect Step: Enlarging the Knesset 169 Appendix A: Women as a Collective: Critical Mass Theory and Its Critiques 172 Appendix B: The Representation of Women in the Knesset, by Party and Block 175 Appendix C: Male and Female Knesset Members Whose Parliamentary Activity was Analyzed in the Study 178 Appendix D: Differences between Men and Women in Involvement in Women’s and Children/Family Issues – Significance Tests 181 References 182 Abstract For the past decade, the issue of women’s representation in the political arena has taken center stage in academia and in public discourse. Underpinning the debate is the normative assumption that women’s representation in politics, and parliaments in particular, carries great importance: it is consistent with the values of equality and representativeness, grants legitimacy to the democratic-liberal regime, and helps inculcate a view of women as citizens of equal standing with men. Some would argue that women’s parliamentary activity is essentially different from that of men, in part because women parliamentarians tend to deal with issues related to the status of women in society and to promote women’s interests to a greater extent than do their male counterparts. According to this thesis, “descriptive representation,” meaning a high proportion of women in parliament, is a precondition for “substantive representation,” that is, the advancement of the interests and viewpoints shared by women. From a historical perspective, although there has been a genuine improvement in women’s parliamentary representation in many countries in recent decades, in most cases equality has still not been achieved. This has led countries and parties that are aware of the importance of this issue to implement institutional measures aimed at improving women’s representation in the political arena. This policy paper is an attempt to contribute to this important debate. To this end it examines women’s representation in politics over the years, and the factors affecting it, compares women’s representation in Israel with that in other countries, and analyzes how descriptive 7 Policy Paper 10E The Representation of Women in Israeli Politics representation of women in the Knesset influences their substantive representation. The study also assesses the institutional mechanisms adopted in Israel to enhance women’s representation in the Knesset, and proposes strengthening and supplementing the existing measures. Women’s Representation in Politics: A Comparative Overview An examination of women’s descriptive representation in the Knesset and the cabinet shows a genuine upward trend over the last twenty years. In the elections for the 19th Knesset (2013), a record 27 women were elected. There are four female ministers in the cabinet at present, also an all-time high, and three Knesset lists—Labor, Meretz, and Hatnua—are headed by women. Moreover, in contrast to previous years, and to the standard claim in the literature,