Fifty Key Thinkers on the Environment

FIFTY KEY THINKERS ON THE ENVIRONMENT Fifty Key Thinkers on the Environment is a unique guide to environmental thinking through the ages. JoyA.Palmer, herself an important and prolific author on environmental matters, has assembled a team of thirty-five expert contributors to summarize and analyse the thinking of fifty diverse and stimulating figures—from all over the world and from ancient times to the present day. Among those included are: • philosophers such as Rousseau, Spinoza and Heidegger • activists such as Chico Mendes • literary giants such as Virgil, Goethe and Wordsworth • major religious and spiritual figures such as Buddha and St Francis of Assissi Lucid, scholarly and informative, these fifty essays offer a fascinating overview of mankind’s view and understanding of the physical world. Joy A.Palmer is Professor of Education and Pro-Vice-Chancellor at the University of Durham. She is Director of the Centre for Research on Environmental Thinking andAwareness at the University of Durham,VicePresident of the National Association for Environmental Education, and a member of the IUCN Commission on Education and Communication. She is the author and editor of numerous books and articles on environmental issues and environmental education. Advisory Editors: David E.Cooper, University of Durham, and Peter Blaze Corcoran, Florida Gulf Coast University. ROUTLEDGE KEY GUIDES Ancient History: Key Themes and Approaches Neville Morley Cinema Studies: The Key Concepts (second edition) Susan Hayward Eastern Philosophy: Key Readings Oliver Leaman Fifty Contemporary Choreographers Edited by Martha Bremser Fifty Eastern Thinkers Diané Collinson, Kathryn Plant and Robert Wilkinson Fifty Key Contemporary Thinkers John Lechte Fifty Key Jewish Thinkers Dan Cohn-Sherbok Fifty Key Islamic Thinkers Centre for Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies, University of Durham Fifty Key Thinkers on History Marnie Hughes-Warrington Fifty Key Thinkers in International Relations Martin Griffiths Fifty Key Thinkers on the Environment Edited by Joy A.Palmer with David E.Cooper and Peter Blaze Corcoran Fifty Major Philosophers Diané Collinson Key Concepts in Cultural Theory Edited by Andrew Edgar and Peter Sedgwick Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy Oliver Leaman Key Concepts in Language and Linguistics R.L.Trask Key Concepts in the Philosophy of Education Christopher Winch and John Gingell Key Concepts in Popular Music Roy Shuker Post-Colonial Studies: The Key Concepts Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths and Helen Tiffin Social and Cultural Anthropology: The Key Concepts Nigel Rapport and Joanna Overing FIFTY KEY THINKERS ON THE ENVIRONMENT Edited by Joy A.Palmer Advisory Editors: David E.Cooper and Peter Blaze Corcoran London and New York First published 2001 by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2003. © 2001 selection and editorial matter, Joy A.Palmer; individual entries, the contributors All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN 0-203-44065-X Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-74889-1 (Adobe eReader Format) ISBN 0-415-14698-4 (hbk) ISBN 0-415-14699-2 (pbk) CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF CONTENTS Alphabetical list of contents Notes on contributors Preface viii xxiii Buddha, fifth century BCE Purushottama Bilimoria 17 Chuang Tzu, fourth century BCE David E.Cooper Aristotle, 384–322 BCE David E.Cooper 12 17 22 27 33 38 44 51 Virgil, 70–19 BCE Philip R.Hardie Saint Francis of Assisi, 1181/2–1226 Andrew Linzey and Ara Barsam WangYang-ming, 1472–1528 T.Yamauchi Michel de Montaigne, 1533–92 Ann Moss Francis Bacon, 1561–1626 Paul S.MacDonald Benedict Spinoza, 1632–77 Paul S.MacDonald - Basho, 1644–94 David J.Mossley v CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF CONTENTS Jean-Jacques Rousseau, 1712–78 Paul S.MacDonald 56 63 Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, 1749–1832 Colin Riordan Thomas Robert Malthus, 1766–1834 John I.Clarke 69 William Wordsworth, 1770–1850 W . John Coletta 74 John Clare, 1793–1864 W . John Coletta 83 Ralph Waldo Emerson, 1803–82 Holmes Rolston III 93 Charles Darwin, 1809–82 Janet Browne 100 106 113 118 122 131 136 143 147 Henry David Thoreau, 1817–62 Laura Dassow W a lls Karl Marx, 1818–83 Richard Smith John Ruskin, 1819–1900 Richard Smith Frederick Law Olmsted, 1822–1903 R. T erry Schnadelbach John Muir, 1838–1914 Peter Blaze Corcoran Anna Botsford Comstock, 1854–1930 Peter Blaze Corcoran Rabindranath Tagore, 1861–1941 Kalyan Sen Gupta Black Elk, 1862–1950 J.Baird Callicott Frank Lloyd Wright, 1867–1959 Robert McCarter 154 160 Mahatma Gandhi, 1869–1948 Purushottama Bilimoria vi CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF CONTENTS Albert Schweitzer, 1875–1965 Ara Barsam and Andrew Linzey 167 174 181 189 194 200 205 211 216 221 228 241 246 252 260 269 Aldo Leopold, 1887–1948 J.Baird Callicott Robinson Jeffers, 1887–1962 Michael McDowell Martin Heidegger, 1889–1976 Simon P . James Rachel Carson, 1907–64 Peter Blaze Corcoran Lynn White, Jr, 1907–87 Michael P . Nelson E.F.Schumacher, 1911–77 Satish Kumar Arne Naess, 1912– David E.Cooper John Passmore, 1914– David E.Cooper James Lovelock, 1919– Michael Allaby Ian McHarg, 1920– R. T erry Schnadelbach Murray Bookchin, 1921– John Barry Edward Osborne Wilson, 1929– Phillip J.Gates Paul Ehrlich, 1932– Ian G.Simmons Holmes Rolston III, 1932– Jack Weir Rudolf Bahro, 1935–97 John Barry Gro Harlem Brundtland, 1939– Joy A.Palmer 274 vii ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTENTS Val Plumwood, 1939– Nicholas Griffin 283 290 296 302 307 J.Baird Callicott, 1941– Michael P . Nelson Susan Griffin, 1943– Cheryll Glotfelty Chico Mendes, 1944–88 Joy A.Palmer Peter Singer, 1946– Paula Casal Vandana Shiva, 1952– Lynette J.Dumble 313 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTENTS Aristotle, 384–322 BCE Francis Bacon, 1561–1626 Rudolf Bahro, 1935–97 Basho, 1644–94 12 38 269 51 Black Elk, 1862–1950 Murray Bookchin, 1921– Gro Harlem Brundtland, 1939– Buddha, fifth century BCE J.Baird Callicott, 1941– Rachel Carson, 1907–64 Chuang Tzu, fourth century BCE John Clare, 1793–1864 147 241 274 1 290 194 7 83 Anna Botsford Comstock, 1854–1930 Charles Darwin, 1809–82 Paul Ehrlich, 1932– Saint Francis of Assisi, 1181/2–1226 Ralph Waldo Emerson, 1803–82 Mahatma Gandhi, 1869–1948 136 100 252 22 93 160 viii ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTENTS Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, 1749–1832 Susan Griffin, 1943– 63 296 189 181 174 221 69 113 228 302 33 131 211 122 216 283 260 56 118 205 167 313 307 44 Martin Heidegger, 1889–1976 Robinson Jeffers, 1887–1962 Aldo Leopold, 1887–1948 James Lovelock, 1919– Thomas Robert Malthus, 1766–1834 Karl Marx, 1818–83 Ian McHarg, 1920– Chico Mendes, 1944–88 Michel de Montaigne, 1533–92 John Muir, 1838–1914 Arne Naess, 1912– Frederick Law Olmsted, 1822–1903 John Passmore, 1914– Val Plumwood, 1939– Holmes Rolston III, 1932– Jean-Jacques Rousseau, 1712–78 John Ruskin, 1819–1900 E.F.Schumacher, 1911–77 Albert Schweitzer, 1875–1965 Vandana Shiva, 1952– Peter Singer, 1946– Benedict Spinoza, 1632–77 Rabindranath Tagore, 1861–1941 Henry David Thoreau, 1817–62 Virgil, 70–19 BCE 143 106 17 WangYang-ming, 1472–1528 Lynn White, Jr, 1907–87 Edward Osborne Wilson, 1929– William Wordsworth, 1770–1850 27 200 246 74 <ul style="display: flex;"><li style="flex:1">Frank Lloyd Wright, 1867–1959 </li><li style="flex:1">154 </li></ul>ix CONTRIBUTORS Allaby, Michael is an author, based in Argyll, Scotland. Barry, John is Reader in the School of Politics, the Queen’s University of Belfast, Northern Ireland. Barsam, Ara is D.Phil. student in the Faculty of Theology, Oxford University, England. Bilimoria, Purushottama is Associate Professor in the School of Social Inquiry, Deakin University, Australia, and continuing Visiting Lecturer in Philosophy at the University of Melbourne. Browne, Janet is Reader in the History of Biology at the Wellcome Centre for the History of Medicine at University College, London, England. Callicott, J.Baird is Professor of Philosophy at the University of North Texas, USA. Casal, Paula is Fellow in Ethics and the Professions at the Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, USA, and Lecturer in Politics at the School of Politics, International Relations and the Environment at the University of Keele, England. Clarke, John I. is Professor of Geography Emeritus at the University of Durham, England. Coletta, W.John is Associate Professor of English at the University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point, USA. Cooper, David E. is Professor of Philosophy at the University of Durham, England. Corcoran, Peter Blaze is Professor of Environmental Studies and Environmental Education at the Florida Gulf Coast University, USA. x CONTRIBUTORS Dumble, Lynette J. is Senior Research Fellow, History and Philosophy of Science at the University of Melbourne, Australia. Gates, Phillip J. is Lecturer in Biological Sciences at the University of Durham, England. Glotfelty, Cheryll is Associate Professor of Literature and Environment in the Department of English at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA. Griffin, Nicholas is Professor of Philosophy at McMaster University, Ontario, Canada. Hardie, Philip R. is Reader in Latin Literature at the University of Cambridge, England, and a Fellow of New Hall. James, Simon P. is Tutor in the Department of Philosophy at the University of Durham, England. Kumar, Satish is Director of Programme, Schumacher College, Dartington, Devon, England, and Editor of Resurgence magazine. Linzey, Andrew is Senior Research Fellow in Theology and Animal Welfare at Mansfield College, Oxford University, and an Honorary Professor at the University of Birmingham, England. MacDonald, Paul S. is Lecturer in Philosophy, Murdoch University, Australia. McCarter, Robert is Director, Professor and Architect in the School of Architecture, University of Florida, USA. McDowell, Michael is Instructor in the Division of English and Modern Languages at Portland Community College, Oregon, USA. Moss, Ann is Professor of French at the University of Durham, England, and a Fellow of The British Academy. Mossley, David J. is freelance philosopher and student of Law at Manchester, England. Nelson, Michael P. is Associate Professor of Philosophy and of Natural Resources at the University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point, USA. Palmer, Joy A. is Professor of Education, Pro-Vice-Chancellor and Director of the Centre for Research on Environmental Thinking and Awareness at the University of Durham, England. xi CONTRIBUTORS Riordan, Colin is Professor of German at the University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England. Rolston III, Holmes is University Distinguished Professor and Professor of Philosophy at Colorado State University, USA. Schnadelbach, R.Terry is Professor of Landscape Architecture at the University of Florida, USA. Sen Gupta, Kalyan is Professor of Philosophy at Jadavpur University, Calcutta, India. Simmons, Ian G. is Professor of Geography at the University of Durham, England, and a Fellow of the British Academy. Smith, Richard is Reader in Education at the University of Durham, England. Walls, Laura Dassow is Associate Professor in the Department of English, Lafayette College, Easton, Philadelphia, USA. Weir, Jack is Professor of Philosophy at Morehead State University, Morehead, Kentucky, USA. Yamauchi, T. is Professor Emeritus of Osaka University of Education and Professor of East Osaka Junior College, Japan. xii PREFACE This book is intended to be a valuable resource for readers with an interest in ‘influential lives’ relating to critical thinking and action which has influenced the environmental movement, and in the intellectual history of environmental philosophy and related fields. Each essay follows a common format. An opening quotation sets the scene, then readers are provided with an overview of the subject’s work and basic biographical information. Each author then engages in critical reflection which aims to illuminate the influence, importance, and perhaps innovative character, of the subject’s thinking and, where appropriate, actions. In other words, authors have moved beyond the purely descriptive and have provided a discussion of the nature of the intellectual or practical impact that the life, thinking and works of each figure made or is making upon our understanding of or attitudes towards environmental matters. At the end of each essay, I have provided information that will lead interested readers into further and more detailed study. Firstly, there are the references for the notes to which the numbers in the text refer; secondly, there is a cross-referencing with other subjects in the book whose thought or influence relates in some obvious way to that of the subject of the essay; thirdly, there is a list of the subject’s major writings (where applicable); and finally, there is a list of references for those who wish to pursue more in-depth reading on the subject. What a tremendously difficult task it was to decide on the final list of fifty environmentalists to be included in this volume. Inevitably, I and my advisory editors were inundated with suggestions and ideas for influential people, who, for the obvious reason of lack of space, had to be left out. The fifty subjects finally decided upon include the very obvious ‘great names’ in the environmental world such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Rachel Carson, alongside some less well-known yet clearly influential people. Our great environmental thinkers span a very broad timescale, from the fifth century BCE to the present day. They include a number of people who might be described as activists, such as Chico Mendes; xiii PREFACE alongside philosophers or more traditional ‘thinkers and writers’ such as John Ruskin and Arne Naess. Finally, I emphasize that this book is certainly not exhaustive—as already mentioned our choice of subjects proved to be extremely difficult. Furthermore, it certainly does not pretend to be an overview of the lives of the fifty greatest environmental thinkers the world has ever known. We believe that it includes some people who would fall into this category of those who have had arguably the greatest global influence on environmental thought and action; but most importantly, all people in the book have made very substantial contributions to environmental thinking in some form or another. It is hoped that some readers will derive great benefit and pleasure from the book because it introduces them to previously unknown lives. As a whole, I hope that this volume will be of interest to all who would like to find out more about the lives of individuals past and present who have influenced thinking about the inter-relationships that exist among people, other species, and the natural world. Joy A.Palmer xiv BUDDHA BUDDHA fifth century BCE How astonishing it is, that a man should be so evil as to break a branch off the tree, after eating his fill.1 Born Siddharta Gotama into a royal family in northern India, c.fifth century BCE, the young prince was overwhelmed by the universality of suffering, old age, illness and death that he witnessed whenever he was allowed outside the palace gates. He took early to a life of contemplation, meditation, austermeaningless cycle of re-death and continual rebirth, until he attained enlightenment (nirvana). The natural settiity and simple living so as to fathom the riddle of life and death, and to resolve his insufferable despair over the endless, ngs surrounding Buddha’s whole life appeared to have inspired, if not Buddha’s own thinking directly, the imagery attributed to the sequence of events leading to his enlightenment. It has been remarked that ‘the Buddha Gotama was born, attained enlightenment, and died under trees’. What textual records we have, furthermore, testify to ‘the importance of forests, not only as an environment preferred for spiritual practices such as meditation but also as a place where laity sought instruction’.2 ‘[So said the Buddha]…Seeking the supreme state of sublime peace, I wandered…until…I saw a delightful forest, so I sat down thinking, “Indeed, this is an appropriate place to strive for the ultimate realization of…Nirvana”.’3 Gotama was likely reacting to rapid commercial urbanization and the rise of merchant and artisan classes in his region, and a concomitant agrarian economy responsible for the deforestation of the Ganges region and consequent vanishing of animal life from its natural habitat. In Buddha’s collected sermons there are compassionate calls to show due care and loving kindness towards all sentient creatures. Birds and animals bear witness to the Buddha’s testimony, and they also become dialogic partners in the ensuing discourses. ‘The BuddhaAmong the Birds’ is only one of the 550 stories from the Jataka tradition that narrates Buddha’s life among animals, and there are stories that recall Buddha’s experiences as an animal in his former births. It would seem that the Buddha was reevaluating the human-cosmos relationship prevalent in the Indic civilization since the arrival of theVedicAryans with their proclivity towards sacrifice, exploitation of animals for agriculture and warfare, and subservience to a brahmanic pan-naturalism, with its ingrained fear of 1 BUDDHA nature. Buddha succeeded in shifting perception from one of fearful warring nature-forces to that of the benign disposition of nature. The Buddha interacted in deep empathy with people from all stratas of life, including the settled merchant classes and trading groups travelling to the region, and from his reflections developed a form of social ethics which he practised and preached. These teachings were handed down and later recorded in the Pali canons, brought together into ‘three baskets’. The coded teachings of the enlightened one (or ‘buddha’) on a broad ethical paradigm that connected with the path of liberation from suffering, despite their heavy emphasis on ascetic life (i.e. renunciation or withdrawal from society), contain innovative and vital knowledge about Buddha’s thinking on the environment. One insight that is nowadays seen as holding a key to the growth of Buddhist ecological consciousness over the course of two millennia and across Asia is that of ‘dependent arising’ (pratitya-samutpada): ‘on the arising of this, that arises’. The causal principle of interdependence registers an ecological vision that, as a recent scholar aptly put it, ‘integrates all aspects of the ecosphere—particular individuals and general species—in terms of the principle of mutual codependence’.4 The relational model undermines the sovereignty and presumed autonomy of the self over other beings and creatures (animals or plants). The ideals of dharma and virtues developed in accordance with this insight have been topics of intense reflection and debate among Buddhist schools, and have also been implemented at different historical junctures, such as by Emperor Ashoka after his conversion to Buddhism. He institutionalized care and welfare towards animals, as the following edict poignantly records for us: ‘Here no animal is to be killed for sacrifice…the Beloved of the Gods has provided medicines for man and beast…medicinal plants…[R]oots and fruits have also been sent where they did not grow and have been planted along the roads for use of man and beast.’5 Another side of the causal principle of interdependence is the consequent or karmic continuum, which suggests that every action conditions a being’s personal history of suffering, the cessation thereof and subsequent liberation from the karmic continuum: ‘on the cessation of this, that ceases’. From the particularity of individual suffering (karmic action-effect), the Buddha was able to generalize to humankind, the animal world and natural environment themselves as distinctive manifestations of the cumulative effect of karmic conditioning. He eschewed any

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