University of South Carolina Scholar Commons Theses and Dissertations 2017 Lamps, Maps, Mud-Machines, and Signal Flags: Science, Technology, and Commerce in the Early United States James Russell Risk University of South Carolina Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/etd Part of the History Commons Recommended Citation Risk, J. R.(2017). Lamps, Maps, Mud-Machines, and Signal Flags: Science, Technology, and Commerce in the Early United States. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/etd/4203 This Open Access Dissertation is brought to you by Scholar Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Scholar Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. LAMPS, MAPS, MUD-MACHINES, AND SIGNAL FLAGS: SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND COMMERCE IN THE EARLY UNITED STATES by James Russell Risk Bachelor of Arts Fairmont State University, 2008 Master of Arts University of Maryland Baltimore County, 2011 Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History College of Arts and Sciences University of South Carolina 2017 Accepted by: Allison C. Marsh, Major Professor Carol E. Harrison, Committee Member Cary J. Mock, Committee Member Joseph A. November, Committee Member Cheryl L. Addy, Vice Provost and Dean of the Graduate School © Copyright by James Russell Risk, 2017 All Rights Reserved. ii DEDICATION To Ann Johnson (1965-2016): mentor, colleague, and friend. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to acknowledge my original advisor, the accomplished and adept Ann Johnson, who passed away December 11, 2016. Ann’s expertise and knowledge were an invaluable resource. Her insight and intuition provided the opportunity for me to pursue my doctorate. Ann saw something in me that others overlooked. She believed in me, pushed me to broaden my perspective, and refused to let me rest on my prior accomplishments. This dissertation is a small gesture of thanks to her for helping me grow intellectually and professionally as a historian. Ann was my biggest advocate and I am forever grateful for that. Allison Marsh stepped in and took over the advising responsibilities when Ann passed away. I am thankful for Allison making the transition as smooth as possible, but I am especially grateful for Allison’s willingness to take me on as an advisee when she already had a full commitment of responsibilities. With Allison’s guidance, the structure and thesis of the dissertation became much clearer. Additionally, Allison helped me sharpen the language and writing. Carol Harrison, Cary Mock, and Joseph November provided constructive criticism as my committee members. Andrew Berns and Thomas Brown read early drafts of sections well before the project even took shape. Each brought a different perspective to the table and I hope I have adequately addressed their critiques. iv This research was supported by grants from the Consortium for the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine; the Pam Laird Research Grant from the Mercurians Special Interest Group of the Society for the History of Technology; my department at the University of South Carolina via the Clyde Ferrell Summer Dissertation Research Fellowship; and my original advisor, Ann Johnson. I would like to acknowledge the archivists who assisted me in my research, specifically Jamie Rice, Nicholas Noyes, and Tiffany Link at the Maine Historical Society; Robert M. Spencer at the Osher Map Library; John Pollack and his staff at the University of Pennsylvania Libraries Kislak Center for Special Collections, Rare Books, and Manuscripts; Damon Talbot at the Maryland Historical Society; Lilla Verkerdy and the staff at the Smithsonian’s Dibner Library for the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine; and Betsy Tyler at the Nantucket Historical Association. My wife Lori read many drafts of my work throughout my academic career. She and our son James have kept me grounded over the years. I owe them the greatest debt of gratitude for their patience. I have travelled this journey for them in hopes of providing them a better future. My brother John gave constructive feedback on the drafts of the dissertation. My sisters, Carolyn and Jennifer, and my Dad listened to my trials and tribulations. Pat Albano’s friendship, mentoring, and faith in my abilities has been a pillar of strength in my intellectual pursuits. Ann Phillips’ motherly advice and early mentoring provided a model I can only hope to emulate. Pat and Ann are rocks to whom I have periodically returned when I needed confidence, strength, and tranquility. Finally, I would like to thank my Mom who continued to watch over me from her heavenly home. I wish she could see what I have become. I know she would be proud. v ABSTRACT As the United States looked forward to its future as an independent nation at the end of the eighteenth century, many saw commerce as a way to secure the nation’s future. American commerce, however, was plagued by a number of commercial problems. Solving these commercial problems facilitated an interest in science and the practical arts as engineers, inventors, mechanics, public officials, and everyday tinkerers innovated new apparatuses to preserve, promote, and protect American commerce. Many of America’s commercial problems in the early nineteenth century, however, resulted from the young nation’s varied geography and environments. Combating the environment’s unrelenting forces often exceeded the resources of private citizens and necessitated the involvement of the state. This can be seen in the advent of government agencies such as the Army Corps of Engineers, the Coast Survey, and the Light-House Establishment. Notwithstanding, the government’s involvement in practical science and innovation proceeded cautiously and unevenly. This caution and uneven involvement on the part of the government derived from societally held values of Jeffersonian republicanism. Republican values of civic duty, prudence, honesty, and self-reliance, thus shaped the government’s role in advancing practical science and the arts in the early nineteenth century United States. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION ....................................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................ iv ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................... vi LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................... viii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ..................................................................................................... ix CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................1 CHAPTER 2: SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND AMERICAN COMMERCE ....................................20 CHAPTER 3: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS ...............................................................72 CHAPTER 4: SCIENCE IN THE UNITED STATES LIGHT-HOUSE ESTABLISHMENT ................117 CHAPTER 5: REPUBLICAN VALUES AND INNOVATION .......................................................173 CHAPTER 6: STATE INVOLVEMENT IN INNOVATION AND KNOWLEDGE CONSTRUCTION ...218 CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION .................................................................................................266 BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................276 APPENDIX A: PERMISSION TO PRINT .................................................................................298 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1 Winslow Lewis Patent Lamp and Reflector System, 1810 ..............................23 Figure 4.1 Fresnel Lens Diagram by Adolphe Ganot [Public Domain] 1872 .................122 viii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS APS .................................................................................... American Philosophical Society BCA ............................................................................................... Baltimore City Archives BCA-CCR .................................................. Baltimore City Archives, City Council Records BCA-CCAP ... Baltimore City Archives, City Commissioners, Applications, and Petitions Cong. ....................................................................................................................... Congress DelHS ....................................................................................... Delaware Historical Society GPO ......................................................................................... Government Printing Office GWBW ....................................................................... G. W. Blunt White Research Library HABS .......................................................................... Historic American Buildings Survey HAG ........................................................................................ Hagley Library and Museum H. Doc. .................................................. United States House of Representatives Document JHU .............................................................................................. Johns Hopkins University JRPC ............................................................................. John Rowe Parker Correspondence