Social and Education History E-ISSN: 2014-3567 [email protected] Hipatia Press España Rahma, Zaynah; J. Paik, Susan South Asian Immigration and Education in the U.S.: Historical and Social Contexts Social and Education History, vol. 6, núm. 1, febrero, 2017, pp. 25-52 Hipatia Press Barcelona, España Available in: http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=317049848002 How to cite Complete issue Scientific Information System More information about this article Network of Scientific Journals from Latin America, the Caribbean, Spain and Portugal Journal's homepage in redalyc.org Non-profit academic project, developed under the open access initiative Instructions for authors, subscriptions and further details: http://hse.hipatiapress.com South Asian Immigration and Education in the U.S.: Historical and Social Contexts Zaynah Rahman1, Susan J. Paik1 1) Claremont Graduate University (United States) Date of publication: February 23rd, 2017 Edition period: February 2017 - June2017 To cite this article: Rahman, Z., & Paik, S.J. (2017). South Asian immigration and education in the U.S.: Historical and Social Contexts. Social and Education History, 6(1), 26-52. doi:10.17583/hse.2017.2393 To link this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.17583/hse.2017.2393 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE The terms and conditions of use are related to the Open Journal System and to Creative Commons Attribution License (CC-BY). HSE – Social and Education History Vol.6 No. 1 February 2017 pp. 26-52 South Asian Immigration and Education in the U.S.: Historical and Social Contexts Zaynah Rahma Susan J. Paik Claremont Graduate University Claremont Graduate University (United States) (United States) Abstract _________________________________________________________________ This article examines the historical and social contexts of South Asian immigration and their current socioeconomic and educational outcomes in the United States. Based on an adapted model of incorporation and literature review, this historical analysis examines government policies, societal reception, co-ethnic communities, as well as other barriers and opportunities of three immigration waves before and after the Immigration Act of 1965. The study reveals the modes of incorporation differed for each immigrant wave as well as subsequent socioeconomic and educational outcomes within the South Asian community. Before 1965, the earliest migrants had several barriers to incorporation coupled with government and societal hostility. After 1965, South Asians began immigrating under more favorable or neutral modes of incorporation. They were also more wealthy, educated, fluent in English, and had professional skills. While the majority of South Asians today represent this demographic composition, a rising subgroup of immigrants arriving under differential circumstances since the 1980s are facing more unique challenges within this community. _________________________________________________________________ Key words: South Asian American, immigration history, co-ethnic community, modes of incorporation, educational outcomes 2017 Hipatia Press ISSN: 2014-3567 DOI: 10.17583/hse.2017.2393 HSE – Social and Education History Vol. 6 No. 1 February 2017 pp. 26-52 Inmigración del Sud de Asia y Educación en USA: Contextos Histórico y Sociales Zaynah Rahma Susan J. Paik Claremont Graduate University Claremont Graduate University (United States) (United States) Resumen _________________________________________________________________ Este artículo examina los contextos históricos y sociales de la inmigración del sur de Asia y sus actuales resultados socioeconómicos y educativos en los Estados Unidos. Basado en un modelo adaptado de integración y en la revisión de literatura, este análisis histórico examina políticas gubernamentales, la recepción social, comunidades co-étnicas, así como otras barreras y oportunidades de tres olas migratorias antes y después de la Ley de Inmigración de 1965. El estudio revela los modos de integración diferenciados para cada una de las olas migratorias así como sus subsecuentes resultados socioeconómicos y educativos dentro de la comunidad sudasiática. Antes de 1965, las primeras personas inmigrantes encontraron diversas barreras para la inclusión junto a la hostilidad gubernamental y social. Después de 1965, las personas sudasiáticas empezaron a inmigrar bajo condiciones de integración más favorables o neutrales. También eran más ricas, educadas, con un inglés más fluido, y con habilidades profesionales. Si bien la mayoría de personas surasiáticas representan actualmente esta composición demográfica, un creciente subgrupo de inmigrantes que están llegando bajo circunstancias diferentes desde la década de los 80 se enfrentan a retos especialmente difíciles dentro de esta comunidad. __________________________________________________________________ Palabras clave: inmigración del sur de Asia, historia de la inmigración, comunidad co- étnica, modelos de integración, resultados educativos 2017 Hipatia Press ISSN: 2014-3567 DOI: 10.17583/hse.2017.2393 28 Rahman & Paik – South Asian Immigration & Education in the U.S. sian Americans have recently been reported as the fastest growing, most educated, and wealthiest racial group in the United States A(Pew Research Center, 2012, p. 3). South Asians, in particular, saw one of the highest rates of academic and socio-economic growth in the US. They have also recently gained visibility through notable individuals, such as actors Kal Penn, Mindy Kaling, and Aziz Ansari, authors Jhumpa Lahiri and Deepak Chopra, and politician Bobby Jindal. While South Asian Americans overall have high professional skills, income levels, and educational attainment rates, polarization in outcomes and experiences do exist within this community today. For example, newer immigrants in the urban ethnic enclaves often struggle in blue-collar jobs as taxi drivers, store clerks, or small motel operators. Additionally, South Asians across the board have been cast under post-9/11 discrimination as people resembling brown- skinned Muslims (Verma, 2008). Consequently, they have faced more racism and discrimination within society and schools in present day. The monolithic view of Asian Americans has been notably challenged by scholars over the past decade. In the same vein, South Asians also have diversity within their own ethnic community (i.e., Indian, Pakistani, Bangladeshi, etc.). Although many South Asians are successful in the US, there is a growing group of immigrants that struggles upon arrival. There is limited research on the successes or struggles of this growing South Asian community. In many cases, they are also completely neglected from inclusion in studies examining Asian Americans in general (Blair & Qian, 1998; Teranishi, Ceja, Antonio, Allen, & McDonough, 2004). In order to understand the diversity within this ethnic community and their current socioeconomic and educational outcomes, it is important to understand the historical and social experiences of South Asian American communities. An examination of immigration factors such as government policies, societal reception, co-ethnic communities, settlement patterns, class status, education, occupation, language ability and time of arrival to the US would help to understand overall and differential outcomes for this ethnic group. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to better understand the historical and social contexts of South Asian groups in terms of their present-day educational and socioeconomic outcomes in the US. This article focuses on HSE – Social and Education History, 5(1)29 the three largest ethnic groups, Indians, Pakistanis, and Bangladeshis; other groups were not included due to the dearth of data and scholarly literature. This article will: 1) utilize the Asian American modes of incorporation framework (Paik, Kula, Saito, Rahman, & Witenstein, 2014) to understand the immigration experiences of South Asian communities; 2) present current demographic, occupational and educational data on South Asians, 3) provide historical context on three waves of South Asian immigration to the US both before and after the Immigration Act of 1965, and 4) discuss how past immigration experiences link to present-day ethnic communities and their educational trends. The article will conclude with how this historical analysis can help inform practice and policy recommendations for South Asian American communities. Theoretical Framework: Modes of Incorporation The theoretical framework is based on the “Asian American modes of incorporation” by Paik et al. (2014), adapted from Portes and Rumbaut’s (1990, 2001) early work on modes of incorporation, to examine the immigration experiences of Asian communities in the US and their impact on later group outcomes (e.g., education). The framework consists of four key factors that affect immigrant experiences in terms of adaptation to the host country: a) Government Policy, b) Societal Reception, c) Co-ethnic Communities, and d) Other Barriers & Opportunities. The first three factors derive from Portes and Rumbaut’s original model. The fourth factor was added by Paik et al. (2014) to examine how time of arrival; location and settlement patterns; class status, occupation, and educational level; and language abilities affected immigrant experiences. Each of these four factors is categorized as positive, negative, or neutral experiences, as described below. The adapted modes of incorporation framework will be used to understand how current educational and occupational trends