Pah ¡chi (From Big Spring Running Down) ig Springs Ethnographic Assessment US -J5 Corridor Study OURCE GROUP REPORT NO. 34 Prepared by: Nevada ` Department of Transportation Division of Environmental Services and Federal Highway Administration Environmental Consultants: Louis Berger & Associates, Inc. Las Vegas, Nevada September 1998 THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA Pah hu wichi(From Big Spring Running Down): Big Spring Ethnographic Assessment US 95 Corridor Study September 1998 BUREAU OF APPLIED RESEARCH IN ANTHROPOLOGY TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables v List of Figures vii Acknowledgments vii Foreword x Chapter One Study Overview 1 Brief Description of the Project 1 Cultural Affiliation and Involved American Indian Tribes 2 The Bureau of Applied Research in Anthropology 3 Native American Cultural Resource Revitalization 3 University of Arizona Study Team 4 Selection of Interview Sites 5 Interview Forms and Analysis 10 Data Analysis 10 Chronology of Work 13 Daily Schedule 13 Chapter Two Contextualizing Indian Opinions 15 Paiute Views of Their Culture 15 Creation Stories 18 Traditional Southern Paiute Political Units 20 The High Chiefs 20 Chiefs of Alliance 21 Disease and Sociopolitical Disruption 22 1840 - 1875 Depopulation 24 1875 -1900 Depopulation 24 Twentieth Century High Chiefs 26 Chief Tecopa 26 Continuities in Southern Paiute Political Leadership 26 Chief Penance 26 Chief Skinner 27 Technical Terms 28 Technical Term #1: Cultural Affiliation 28 Traditional Period 28 Aboriginal Period 29 Historic Period 29 Ownership of Land 30 Response to Encroachment by Euroamericans 30 Cultural Significance of Land 31 Technical Term #2: Cultural Landscape 32 Levels of Cultural Landscapes 37 Holy Lands 37 Storyscapes 38 Regional Landscapes 39 Ecoscapes 39 Landmarks 40 Chapter Three The 3- Springs Area A Place in Paiute Cultural Landscapes 41 The 3- Spring Landscape 43 Southern Paiute Landscape Responses 46 Connections between Indian Villages 46 Activities in the 3- Springs Area 48 Connections to Trails 50 Songs Associated with 3- Springs Area 52 Ceremonies Conducted at 3- Springs Area 53 Connections to Paiute Creation Places 54 Connections between Creation Places and other Places 55 Events Associated with 3- Springs Area 57 Mountain Connections to 3- Springs Area 58 Connections with Colorado River 60 Additional Connections 61 Key Regional Landscape Features 63 Caves 63 Gypsum Cave 63 Pintwater Cave 68 Hot Springs 68 Pah Tempe Spring 68 Artesian Springs 70 Ash Meadows Artesian Springs 70 Mountains 71 Spirit Mountain 71 Mt. Charleston 72 Sunrise -Frenchman Mountains 72 Canyons and Rivers 72 Grand Canyon as a Paiute Regional Landscape 73 Trails: Spiritual and Physical 74 ii Trails, the Cry, and the Salt Song as Paiute Songscapes 75 Chapter Four Site -By -Site Evaluations 76 The 3 -Spring Area Interviews 76 Lorenzi Park 77 History 77 Lorenzi Lake 77 Flora 77 Fauna 79 Stone Mortar Site 79 Topography 79 Flora 79 Fauna 81 Kiel Ranch 81 Soils 82 Fauna 83 Big Springs 83 Soils and Geology 84 Flora 84 Fauna 84 Purposes of Indian Use of the Area 85 Connection with other Places 90 Uses of Water 94 Uses of Plants 96 Uses of Animals 99 Archeology 103 Geologic Features 105 Access 108 Evaluations of Specific Features by Site: Water 110 Evaluations of Specific Features by Site: Plants 112 Evaluations of Specific Features by Site: Animals 113 Evaluations of Specific Features by Site: Archeology 114 Evaluations of Specific Features by Site: Geology 116 Comprehensive Evaluation of Sites and Management Recommendations 117 Factors Affecting the Condition of the Sites 118 Recommendations for Restoration 119 Evaluation of Big Spring and Recommendations for its Management 124 Chapter Five Summary of Findings 131 Cultural Landscape - Summary of Paiute Interpretations 131 iii Cultural Landscapes - An Ethnographic Interpretation 132 Site Specific - Summary of Paiute Interpretations 132 Stone Mortar Site 132 Lorenzi Park 133 Kiel Ranch 133 Site Specific Interviews - An Ethnographic Interpretation 134 Big Springs - Summary of Paiute Interpretations 135 Big Springs - An Ethnographic Summary and Conclusion 135 Regarding Extrapolation of Findings 135 Regarding Cultural Landscapes 136 Regarding Mitigation 136 References Cited 138 Appendix A: Cultural Landscape Interview Form 148 Appendix B: Site -Specific Interview Form 159 Appendix C: Final Evaluation Interview Form 170 iv LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1: Major Epidemic Episodes of Old World Diseases Among Pueblo Peoples That May Have Spread to Southern Paiutes 23 Table 2.2: Epidemic Disease Mortality Model of Numic- Speaking Native American Population Change, 1847 -1856 25 Table 3.1. Response Summary Table: Connections between Indian Villages 46 Table 3.2. Response Summary Table: Activities in the 3- Springs Area 48 Table 3.3. Response Summary Table: Connections to Trails 50 Table 3.4. Response Summary Table: Songs Associated with 3- Springs Area 52 Table 3.5. Response Summary Table: Ceremonies Conducted at 3- Springs Area 53 Table 3.6. Response Summary Table: Connections to Paiute Creation Places 54 Table 3.7. Response Summary Table: Connections between Creation Places and other Places 56 Table 3.8 Response Summary Table: Events Associated with 3- Springs Area 57 Table 3.9. Response Summary Table: Mountain Connections to 3- Springs Area 58 Table 3.10. Response Summary Table: Connections with Colorado River 60 Table 3.11. Response Summary Table: Additional Connections 61 Table 3.12. Response Summary Table: Other Event Connections 62 Table 4.1. Response Summary Table: "Yes" Responses to Indian Use of Area 85 Table 4.2. Indian Use of Stone Mortar Site: Response Summary Table 85 Table 4.3. Indian Use of Lorenzi Park: Response Summary Table 86 Table 4.4. Indian Use of Kiel Ranch: Response Summary Table 89 Table 4.5. Connections with Other Places: Response Summary Table 90 Table 4.6. Important Indian Features: Response Summary Table 93 Table 4.7. Indian Use of Water: Response Summary Table 94 Table 4.8. Indian Use of Water at Stone Mortar Site: Response Summary Table 94 Table 4.9. Indian Use of Water at Lorenzi Park: Response Summary Table 95 Table 4.10. Indian Use of Water at Kiel Ranch: Response Summary Table 96 Table 4.11 Indian Uses of Plants: Response Summary Table 96 Table 4.12. Indian Uses of Plants at the Stone Mortar Site: Response Summary Table 97 Table 4.13. Indian Uses of Plants at Lorenzi Park: Response Summary Table 98 Table 4.14. Indian Uses of Plants at Kiel Ranch: Response Summary Table 98 Table 4.15. Indian Uses of Animals: Response Summary Table 99 Table 4.16. Indian Uses of Animals at Stone Mortar Site: Response Summary Table 100 Table 4.17. Indian Uses of Animals at Lorenzi Park: Response Summary Table 101 Table 4.18. Indian Uses of Animals at Kiel Ranch: Response Summary Table 102 Table 4.19 Indian Use of Site: Response Summary Table 103 Table 4.20. Indian Use of Site at Stone Mortar Site: Response Summary Table 103 Table 4.21. Indian Use of Site at Lorenzi Park: Response Summary Table 104 v Table 4.22. Indian Use of Site at Kiel Ranch: Response Summary Table 105 Table 4.23. Indian Use of Geologic Features: Response Summary Table 105 Table 4.24. Indian Use of Geologic Features at Stone Mortar Site: Response Summary Table 106 Table 4.25. Indian Use of Geologic Features at Lorenzi Park: Response Summary Table . 107 Table 4.26. Indian Use of Geologic Features at Kiel Ranch: Response Summary Table 108 Table 4.27. Indian Access: Response Summary Table 108 Table 4.28. Condition of Water at Stone Mortar Site: Response Summary Table 110 Table 4.29. Factors Affecting Water at Stone Mortar Site: Response Summary Table 111 Table 4.30. Condition of Water at Lorenzi Park: Response Summary Table 111 Table 4.31. Factors Affecting Water at Lorenzi Park: Response Summary Table 111 Table 4.32. Condition of Water at Kiel Ranch: Response Summary Table 111 Table 4.33. Factors Affecting Water at Kiel Ranch: Response Summary Table 111 Table 4.34. Condition of Plants at Stone Mortar Site: Response Summary Table 112 Table 4.35. Factors Affecting Plants at Stone Mortar Site: Response Summary Table 112 Table 4.36. Condition of Plants at Lorenzi Park: Response Summary Table 112 Table 4.37. Factors Affecting Plants at Lorenzi Park: Response Summary Table 112 Table 4.38. Condition of Plants at Kiel Ranch: Response Summary Table 112 Table 4.39. Factors Affecting Plants at Kiel Ranch: Response Summary Table 113 Table 4.40. Condition of Animals/Habitat at Stone Mortar Site: Response Summary Table .113 Table 4.41. Factors Affecting Animals/Habitat: Response Summary Table 113 Table 4.42. Condition of Animals/Habitat at Lorenzi Park: Response Summary Table 113 Table 4.43. Factors Affecting Animals/Habitat: Response Summary Table 113 Table 4.44. Condition of Animals/Habitat at Kiel Ranch: Response Summary Table 114 Table 4.45. Factors Affecting Animals/Habitat at Kiel Ranch: Response Summary Table 114 Table 4.46. Condition of Site at Stone Mortar Site: Response Summary Table 114 Table 4.47. Factors Affecting Archeology at Stone Mortar Site: Response Summary Table .114 Table 4.48. Condition of Site at Lorenzi Park: Response Summary Table 115 Table 4.49. Factors Affecting Archeology at Lorenzi Park: Response Summary Table 115 Table 4.50. Condition of Site at Kiel Ranch: Response Summary Table 115 Table 4.51. Factors Affecting Archeology at Kiel Ranch: Response Summary Table 115 Table 4.52. Condition of Geology at Stone Mortar Site: Response Summary Table 116 Table 4.53. Factors Affecting Geology at Stone Mortar Site: Response Summary Table 116 Table 4.54. Condition of Geology at Lorenzi Park: Response Summary Table 116 Table 4.55. Condition of Geology at Kiel Ranch: Response Summary Table 116 Table 4.56. Factors Affecting Geology at Kiel Ranch: Response Summary Table 117 Table 4.57.