MOROCCO IN THE EARLY ATLANTIC WORLD, 1415-1603 A Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences of Georgetown University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History By Earnest W. Porta, Jr., J.D. Washington, DC June 20, 2018 Copyright 2018 by Earnest W. Porta, Jr. All Rights Reserved ii MOROCCO IN THE EARLY ATLANTIC WORLD, 1415-1603 Earnest W. Porta, Jr., J.D. Dissertation Advisor: Osama Abi-Mershed, Ph.D. ABSTRACT Over the last several decades, a growing number of historians have conceptualized the Atlantic world as an explanatory analytical framework, useful for studying processes of interaction and exchange. Stretching temporally from the 15th into the 19th century, the Atlantic world framework encompasses more than simply the history of four continents that happen to be geographically situated around what we now recognize as the Atlantic basin. It offers instead a means for examining and understanding the transformative impacts that arose from the interaction of European, African, and American cultures following the European transatlantic voyages of the 15th and 16th centuries. Though it has not been extensively studied from this perspective, during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries Morocco possessed geopolitical characteristics that uniquely situated it within not only the Islamic world, but the developing Atlantic world as well. This study considers Morocco’s involvement in the early Atlantic world by examining three specific phases of its involvement. The first phase lasts approximately one hundred years and begins with the Portuguese invasion of Ceuta in 1415, considered by some to mark the beginning of European overseas expansion. In this phase Morocco faces an almost relentless assault from the earliest Atlantic powers, Portugal and Spain. After a period of roughly fifty years, this assault becomes almost exclusively an Atlantic one. Essentially confined to the Moroccan Mediterranean coast by a combination of geography and resistance, the Portuguese use the pathways of the Atlantic to proceed southward along the Moroccan Atlantic coast, iii establishing trading enclaves and fortresses from which they not only support their exploratory, commercial, and conquest ambitions in sub-Saharan Africa, the Atlantic, and the Indian Ocean, but from which they also attempt to subjugate inland Morocco. With this expansion the Portuguese both undermine the legitimacy of Morocco’s existing rulers, the Wattasids, and lay the groundwork for the successor dynasty that became their nemesis. During the second phase, which covers the remainder of the sixteenth century, Morocco begins to use the avenues provided by the Atlantic world first to resist the Portuguese assault and then to take the offensive. Capitalizing on the public support gained by opposing the Portuguese, the sharīfian Sa’dī dynasty rises to prominence in southern Morocco. Partially through effective use of the trade networks now offered by the Atlantic, the Sa'di trade sugar and other commodities to accumulate wealth and arms sufficient to unify the country and assert a degree of independence from external powers. In this study’s final phase, which overlaps with the second and extends from the Moroccan victory at the Battle of Wadi al-Makazin in 1578 until the death of Ahmad al-Mansur in 1603, Morocco mirrors the conduct of other Atlantic states. First it actively engages in the complicated international political dynamics of the sixteenth century, which most importantly for the development of the Atlantic world include preventing the powerful Ottoman Empire from gaining control of Atlantic ports. Second, Morocco attempts to assert its own imperial ambitions with both an actual military adventure across the Sahara and an audacious proposal to reach across the Atlantic itself to the Americas. Reviewing each of these phases demonstrates how examining Morocco within the context of an Atlantic world framework can provide a greater understanding of how both Morocco and the Atlantic world developed – one that could not be achieved by a traditional iv examination of national histories. Not exhaustive, this study suggests that additional consideration of more fully integrating Morocco into the larger Atlantic narrative is a worthwhile pursuit. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Completing a dissertation can be a lengthy process during which debts of gratitude accumulate, and that was certainly so for me. Without the encouragement, support, and guidance of numerous individuals this project would have faltered and ended long ago. On the institutional side of the ledger I would like to extend my appreciation to the staffs of the Library of Congress, the Bibliothèque Nationale du Royaume du Maroc, and the Georgetown University Library. At each institution I found individuals willing to engage on my topic and assist in identifying and securing useful materials either on-site or through Inter-Library Loan requests. I also received generous financial support from the Georgetown University Department of History, which was integral to my ability to continue my studies. The universe of other individuals who assisted me in myriad ways is voluminous. Among them are participants in Georgetown University’s Early Modern Global History Seminar, as well as the faculty and students who formed an “Atlantic Group” to discuss ideas and examine each other’s work. These interactions constantly challenged me both to explore new subjects and to reconsider familiar ones with fresh eyes. Participation proved to be one of the great joys of the graduate student experience. I also benefited from the encouragement of many friends, both personal and professional. Their support went beyond any interest in my focus of study and instead reflected their willingness to help me in meeting whatever challenges I faced in my endeavors. Among them are Erin, Barry and Betty, Liz, Kirstyn, Gayle, Chris and Sue, Mary, Kathy, Zoe, Val, Dolores, Boyd, and Harry. My mother, father, sister, and brother also provided moral support over the years. Two have been through the process themselves in the sciences and all did their best to express interest in my work, however humorously off the beaten track it may have been for them. vi My dissertation committee also provided invaluable support. Each and every one of them—Osama Abi Mershed, Alison Games, John McNeill, and Judith Tucker—contributed materially to my engagement with the topic, and I benefitted from their wisdom in the classroom over a period of years that stretches back a long way, well before I even contemplated this dissertation. Two of them warrant additional mention. Alison Games simply could not have been more supportive. She introduced me to the Atlantic World, encouraged me to test its boundaries, challenged me with salient critiques, introduced me to colleagues and fellow students whose insights fascinated me, and helped me through all the inevitable roadblocks that emerged along the way both within and outside of the academic environment. Always interesting and encouraging, much of the joy in the process was due to her involvement. Osama Abi Mershed from the earliest days encouraged my pursuit of the topic. He not only offered guidance along the way, but exhibited patience and understanding as I worked to develop a facility with the multiple languages I considered necessary. Able to move among historical time periods with ease, he opened my eyes to connections that I would have missed but for his efforts. Administrative staff within Georgetown’s Department of History also made my journey much easier than it otherwise might have been. In particular, I want to thank Carolina Madinaveitia, who always promptly, comprehensively, and cheerfully, assisted me in navigating the processes and procedures involved in completing a dissertation. Finally, I owe my largest debt of gratitude to my wonderful wife, Barbara. Her immense reservoirs of patience, compassion, and goodwill are renowned among those who know her, and they were all evident throughout this process. Her support and encouragement were unwavering and unconditional. I could not have done this without her and it is to her with love that I dedicate this dissertation. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction ......................................................................................................................................1 Chapter I. Morocco and the Atlantic: A Piece of the Puzzle ..................................................20 Chapter II. Facing the Atlantic: The Sea of Darkness..............................................................44 Chapter III. Fighting the Atlantic: The Iberian Assault.............................................................99 Chapter IV. Using the Atlantic: The Sa’di, Sugar, and Saltpeter ............................................210 Chapter V. Conquering the Atlantic: Iberia, Songhay, and Spanish America .......................298 Conclusion. Morocco in the Early Atlantic World ..................................................................345 Appendix A. Chronology of Important Events in Morocco and the Atlantic World ................351 Appendix B. Fifteenth-Century Rulers .....................................................................................361 Appendix C. Sixteenth-Century Rulers .....................................................................................362 Bibliography ................................................................................................................................363