A CRITICAL EXPLORATION OF CHANGES TO THE INVESTIGATION OF HOMICIDE IN ENGLAND AND WALES FROM THE 1980S TO THE PRESENT DAY SOPHIE BEATRICE JUNE PIKE A submission presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the University of South Wales/Prifysgol De Cymru for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy May 2018 Abstract The six-year investigation by West Yorkshire Police to apprehend Peter Sutcliffe, the Yorkshire Ripper, in the late 1970s and early 1980s was roundly criticised and led to a public inquiry that called for wide-ranging changes to homicide investigation. With a history already marred by corruption and miscarriages of justice, it was a pivotal case, which triggered a process of reform that has continued to the present day. Yet, flawed investigations continue, suggesting that the investigation of homicide remains fallible. Moreover, the homicide detection rate has declined since the 1960s. Despite this, homicide investigation is a topic that has been subject to minimal academic scrutiny. This study addresses this gap by exploring how and why the investigation of homicide in England and Wales has changed since the 1980s and what has been lost and/or gained as a consequence. Adopting a qualitative approach, the research is based on in-depth interviews with twenty- seven former and serving homicide detectives, the analysis of three police murder files from the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s, and observations of homicide investigation and detective training. Original documentation from the Yorkshire Ripper investigation was also examined. This research has established that homicide investigation has changed almost beyond all recognition across the last four decades. This is the consequence of four central drivers: a growing preoccupation with risk; the changing political economy; reactions to miscarriages of justice or problematic cases; and advances in science and technology. The impact of change has been considerable and whilst there have been benefits, today’s more risk averse homicide detectives face new challenges that are compounded by cuts to police budgets and prioritisation of other crimes such as terrorism. 2 Acknowledgements To my supervisors, Professors Fiona Brookman and Mike Maguire, a heartfelt thank you for your unwavering support and guidance. You have made the challenge of completing a PhD an enjoyable one and I really am going to miss our supervision meetings. Thank you also for helping me to lay the foundations for my future academic career by encouraging me to pursue other exciting opportunities along the way. I have learnt so much and simply could not have asked for better supervisors. Those who participated in my research must of course remain anonymous, but they each deserve an enormous thank you for giving me so many hours of their valuable time and such fantastic insight into their world. I have thoroughly enjoyed meeting and speaking to every one of you. Thank you to the team at the University of South Wales (formerly University of Glamorgan) Centre for Criminology. When I joined the university as an undergraduate in 2007 I could never have dreamed that I would still be here ten years later having completed a PhD. It is because of you that I was able to take that step and your encouragement over the years has been more than I could ever have asked for. A special thank you to Dr Cheryl Allsop - you were right, it did all come together! The biggest thank you to my family and friends, four legged and otherwise (especially Munchkin!). To mum and dad, had you not supported me when I decided to give up full-time work and go to university, I would not be in this fantastic position and for that I will be forever grateful. To Olivia, Luke and baby Nancy, thank you for keeping a roof over my head, keeping me fed and encouraging me when I was in serious procrastination mode! Thanks to Ben, Josey, Nathan and Kate for providing me with R and R in Scotland when I needed it. Thank you also to my Nan for proof reading some of the chapters and doing a wonderful job. An enormous thank you to my fabulous friends, Olivia, Michelle, Hannah and Sara for always being on hand to make sure I took a holiday and helping me to celebrate the mini victories. Finally, this research would not have been possible had I not received one of the University of Glamorgan’s Centenary Scholarships. Thank you. 3 Contents Chapter One - Introduction .................................................................................................... 8 The Need to Pursue all Lines of Enquiry ........................................................................... 8 The Present Research ........................................................................................................ 10 Thesis Structure ................................................................................................................ 10 Part One - The Research Backdrop ..................................................................................... 13 Chapter Two - The Changing Face of Homicide Investigation: History and Explanations of Change ......................................................................................................... 14 From The Birth of Criminal Investigation to an Alleged ‘Golden Age’ of Policing and the Rise of Scandal ............................................................................................................. 14 The Post-War Period: A ‘Golden Age’ of Policing? ........................................................ 16 Rising Scandal .................................................................................................................. 17 Policing and Change .......................................................................................................... 18 Thatcher, Efficiency and a Privileged Police Force ......................................................... 18 The Yorkshire Ripper and The Byford Inquiry 1981 ....................................................... 20 The Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (PACE) ..................................................... 21 ‘Value for Money’ and the Performance Culture ............................................................. 25 Introducing Models of Interviewing ................................................................................. 28 The Criminal Procedure and Investigations Act 1996 (CPIA) ......................................... 30 New Labour, the Macpherson Report and Further Legislation ........................................ 33 The Professionalising Investigation Programme (PIP) .................................................... 37 Late Modernity and Risk .................................................................................................. 40 The Current Picture .......................................................................................................... 43 Explaining Change ............................................................................................................. 45 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 50 Chapter Three - A Review of the Technological and Scientific Advances in Homicide Investigation ........................................................................................................................... 52 The Use of Science and Technology in Criminal Investigation: A Brief History ......... 52 Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) ........................................................................................... 54 The Pitchfork Case ........................................................................................................... 55 The National DNA Database (NDNAD) .......................................................................... 56 The Home Office Large Major Enquiry System (HOLMES) ........................................ 58 Passive Data Sources .......................................................................................................... 60 Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) ................................................................................... 60 Communications Data ...................................................................................................... 63 The Role of Science and Technology in Homicide Investigations .................................. 65 Art, Craft, Science and Detective Culture ....................................................................... 68 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 70 Chapter Four - Illuminating the World of Homicide Investigation and the Detective ... 71 A Qualitative Approach ..................................................................................................... 71 4 Interviews: Capturing the Past and Present .................................................................... 72 Pilot Interviews ................................................................................................................. 74 Identifying Former and Serving Homicide Detectives ..................................................... 75 Interviewing Former and Serving Detectives: In Practice ................................................ 77 Asking Interviewees to Look Back .................................................................................. 79 Asking Difficult Questions ..............................................................................................