CHAPTER 13 Workshops and Technology Eleni Hasaki 13.1 Craft Workshops and the Community in the Greek World Within the bursting artisan quarters of ancient cities, skilled workers turned metal, stone, clay, textiles, leather, ivory, and other materials into a variety of objects to be used in the house, worn at the battlefield, dedicated in the sanc- tuary, or offered in burials or at tombs. The tools, techniques, technology, workshop organization, and spatial layout required have changed little over the millennia, especially before the use of electricity. A modern potter, and for that matter most other artisans, could have operated and collaborated with his craft associates around an ancient workshop rather comfortably. But despite the ease of the modern craft practitioner, the modern archaeologist could not face more challenges in the correct identification and interpretation of craft installations and techniques. Our archaeological inquiries have approached the world of production in a somewhat fragmentary manner: from iconography of objects to microscopic analysis of the raw materials themselves. When archaeologists turn their attention to the human agents, the workmen who transformed raw materials into finished products, there are two sets of evidence to confront: (i) representations of (mainly) craftsmen at work on Athenian vases and Corinthian plaques; and (ii) references in ancient texts (e.g. philosophers of the 4th c. BC, encyclopedists and travelers of the first two centuries AD). Both the pictorial evidence (Ziomecki 1975; Zimmer 1982a; Jockey 1998; Hasaki 2002; Vidale 2002; Papadopoulos 2003; Hadjidimitriou 2005; Ulrich 2008; Williams 2009b) and textual references A Companion to Greek Art, First Edition. Edited by Tyler Jo Smith and Dimitris Plantzos. © 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Published 2012 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. SSmith_c13.inddmith_c13.indd 225555 22/28/2012/28/2012 11:15:39:15:39 AAMM 256 Forms, Times, and Places (Müller 1974; Neesen 1989; Roochnik 1996) have been discussed in great detail. A burgeoning scholarship on ancient technology from Prehistoric to Byzantine times is also available (e.g. Burford 1972; Humphrey et al. 1998; Ling 2000; Evely 2002; Oleson 2008). For the purposes of this chapter, we will focus on three locales – namely, the workshops of a potter, a bronze-sculptor, and a marble-sculptor. For each of these areas of ancient craft, we will attempt to understand better, on the one hand, the technology itself and, on the other, the people and locations involved. We will also emphasize the common body of knowledge on techniques and materials that many craft practitioners share and their interdependence, an aspect sometimes forgotten in focused surveys of specific crafts. Two representations of an Athenian pottery workshop can serve both as anchoring points for our discussion on workshops and technology and as cautionary tales on how to reconstruct fully-functioning workshop contexts from the existing lacunose evidence: a depiction of potters at work on a black- figured Attic hydria of the later 6th c. BC attributed to the Leagros Group and now in Munich (Boardman 2001a: fig. 174) and an imaginary reconstruction of an Athenian pottery workshop by a French artist from the early 20th c. AD (Vidale 1998). The sharp contrast of the composition, style, and character of these two artistic renditions makes them hardly comparable, but they represent satisfactorily some of our scholarly attitudes to ancient craft workshops and their technologies: some approaches deal heavily with what evidence (textual, archaeometric, archaeological) we have from the past, and others tend to augment the existing evidence with some imaginary and even idealizing notions. As a result, our reconstruction of ancient technologies, workers, and workshops can be at least as likely and believable as the one drawn in the early 20th c., unless we use all available and relevant evidence and methods to recreate the world of ancient crafts. Our interests in the customers of these vases both at home and abroad, and in connoisseurship (Beazley 1956, 1963), although important in their own way, detract us from considering the everyday life of the workshop itself. 13.2 The Potter’s Workshop Once inside any craft workshop, the composition of the crew becomes an important issue. From the surviving artisans’ signatures and the depictions of craftsmen at work, it seems that the vast majority of ancient workshops were ‘manned’ by males (cf. Figure 13.1). Only one woman decorating the handles of a volute-krater on the 5th c. BC Athenian red-figure Caputi hydria (ARV 376.61) indicates that women may have played a role in the decoration of ves- sels, or even in the production of mold-made objects; it is possible they worked SSmith_c13.inddmith_c13.indd 225656 22/28/2012/28/2012 11:15:39:15:39 AAMM Workshops and Technology 257 Figure 13.1 Athenian red-figure calyx-krater (Caltagirone, Museo Regionale della Ceramica 961. Drawing by D. Weiss). from home and transferred their products to a family workshop to be fired. Painting, whether on vases or on panels and walls, seems to have been popular with women, and ancient authors do mention a few female artists, all daughters of established painters (e.g. Plin. HN 35.136). The potter who fashioned the vase and the painter who painted it often left signatures of their respective tasks. What about the rest of the crew, who did not sign the vases in any capacity, but greatly contributed to their production? No potter, to our current knowledge, left behind a handbook of how to run his establishment. Instead, it is the Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle, the Roman encyclopedist Pliny the Elder, and the Greek traveler Pausanias who refer occasionally (and always with admiration) to craft apprenticeship (Burford 1972; Hasaki forthcoming, b). But their attitudes towards the subject are not equally lofty. Aristotle states, ‘Crafts are teachable; otherwise, good craftsmen would be born, not made’ (Eth. Nic. 2.1). The potter’s learning curve, especially, was paradigmatic for the Greek philosophers, who used it as a met- aphor for the steady, methodical, and patient acquisition of knowledge they sought to inculcate in their own students. As Plato (Grg. 514E; Lach. 187) SSmith_c13.inddmith_c13.indd 225757 22/28/2012/28/2012 11:15:40:15:40 AAMM 258 Forms, Times, and Places warns us, ‘You should not learn the potter’s craft by first forming a very large vessel, the pithos.’ Similarly, a student of any field (mechanical or intellectual) should acquire skills in a structured sequence and not skip to the most difficult task with no prior experience. The qualities of hard work, patience, persever- ance, learning from errors, and gradual acquisition of skills, critical for a successful artisan, were equally essential for a craftsman, orator, or statesman. The iconographic evidence shows primarily artisans in major roles (masters) and others in subsidiary roles, where it is not always easy to differentiate younger skilled assistants from apprentices, from unskilled laborers. One representation is particularly helpful. On the shoulder of the Caputi hydria mentioned above are two younger, beardless painters, who must be at the beginning of their artistic careers and appear to be responsible for the palmette ornamental zones on two kraters. The apprentice vase-painter would have needed to learn the spatial divi- sion of a vessel, what visual element to use as a boundary marker, and how to choose the appropriate design configuration within each spatial division. Learning the decoration syntax of a vessel would have been a long process. Templates were often used to make border designs such as ivy leaves on the Caeretan hydriai of the Archaic period (Hemelrijk 1984). From pattern-work, one could move up to animals, to secondary figures (or ‘mantle figures’ as they are often called in vase-painting), to rendering a known theme masterfully in all its components from pattern work to figural scenes (Beazley 1989: 53). Apprenticeship was not always a relaxed, lofty, and pleasant phase as the Caputi hydria suggests. Punishment associated with apprenticeship may be detected in a highly unusual scene on a Boeotian skyphos dated to c. 400–390 BC (Daumas 2000). It would be a usual workshop scene, with two potters working on the wheel and two workmen transporting vessels to stack them, were it not for a figure literally hung horizontally from the ceiling. Is this a true depiction, or a visualization of a verbal threat that the master potter repeated endlessly to young apprentices? The potter, both during his apprenticeship and later, spent most of his time around the wheel (Gr. trohos). This is where he threw, built, and fashioned his objects, and when he was the one decorating them, he also used the wheel as a turn-table. No complete potter’s wheel has survived from Greek antiquity. Illustrations of potters working at the wheel and excavated parts of a wheel fill the gap (Vidale 1998; Vidale 2002). Its appearance and operation is recon- structed from paintings on Corinthian plaques and Athenian vessels from the Archaic and Classical periods. On both the Corinthian and Athenian depic- tions, the potter is usually shown seated next to the wheel, with the wheel head either above or below his knees. Only in the Athenian representations is there also an assistant who helps turn the wheel, while the potter shapes the vessel upon it. It has been suggested that the extant depictions of potters’ wheels, few though they are, represent two different types: a lighter wheel and a heavier wheel (Vidale 2002). The lighter wheel had smaller dimensions and SSmith_c13.inddmith_c13.indd 225858 22/28/2012/28/2012 11:15:40:15:40 AAMM Workshops and Technology 259 could spin faster for the throwing of delicate vessels, such as kylikes; the heavier, larger wheel was slower, but could sustain a stable momentum longer, thereby enabling the potter to throw larger, more time-consuming vessels.